Chapter II

Review of Literature

This chapter reviews literature and studies regarding terrestrial arthropods, nematodes,
Platyhelminthes, odonates, and benthic macroinvertebrate species, which have bearings of
consequences with the present study. It also creates assistance in conceptualizing the study and
interpreting and analyzing data. This chapter was organized into the following subheadings:
Legal basis, Theoretical Framework, Studies Conducted, and Framework of the study.

Legal Basis
Republic Act No. 9072 is known as the “National Caves and Cave Resources
Management and Protection Act.” According to the "Section 2. Declaration of Policy" of RA.
9072 states that it is hereby declared the policy of the State to conserve, protect and manage
caves and cave resources as part of the country’s natural wealth. Towards this end, the State shall
strengthen cooperation and exchange of information between governmental authorities and
people who utilize caves and cave resources for scientific, educational, recreational, tourism and
other purposes."

This law is relevant to the present study because the law protects and conserves the caves and
includes all life forms in the cave, which the researchers aim to do. The protection of caves is
necessary since it is one of the environmental habitats where species live. Caves and cave fauna
can be helpful for future cave-related research.

Republic Act No. 9147 is known as the "Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act."
In Sec. 2. Declaration of Policy states that “It shall be the policy of the State to conserve the
country's wildlife resources and their habitats for sustainability. In the pursuit of this policy, this
Act shall have the following objectives:(a) to conserve and protect wildlife species and their
habitats to promote ecological balance and enhance biological diversity; (b) to regulate the
collection and trade of wildlife; (c) to pursue, with due regard to the national interest, the
Philippine commitment to international conventions, protection of wildlife and their habitats; and
(d) to initiate or support scientific studies on the conservation of biological diversity.”
This law bearing to the current study because it aims to promote the conservation and protection
of wildlife species, including their habitats, which is also the researchers' aim.
Macroinvertebrates are one of the wildlife species. Without macroinvertebrates, there would be
an imbalance in the ecology wherein organisms (i.e., fish, amphibians, and reptiles) would be
affected since they are the food source. Hence, the protection and conservation of wildlife
animals are crucial for sustainability, ecological balance, and future studies.

Republic Act No. 8293 is known as the “Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines.” Section 2
Declaration of Policy states that "The State recognizes that an effective intellectual and industrial
property system is vital to the development of domestic and creative activity, facilitates the
transfer of technology, attracts foreign investments, and ensures market access for our products.
It shall protect and secure the exclusive rights of scientists, inventors, artists, and other gifted
citizens to their intellectual property and creations, particularly when beneficial to the people, for
such periods as provided in this Act. The use of intellectual property bears a social function. To
this end, the State shall promote the diffusion of knowledge and information for the promotion of
national development and progress and the common good. It is also the policy of the State to
streamline administrative procedures of registering patents, trademarks, and copyright, liberalize
the registration of the transfer of technology, and enhance the enforcement of intellectual
property rights in the Philippines. (n)"

This law is applied in this study, wherein the researchers followed the proper ways of
paraphrasing, quotations, and citations taught by the research teacher to prevent plagiarism. This
law is also relevant to the present study because it will help secure and protect this research from
being stolen. If ever it happens, the offender/s will then be punished by the law.

Theoretical framework

    Macroinvertebrates mostly appeared in streams and rivers (Elsevier Inc, 2017). The
macroinvertebrate community in many lotic habitats comprises several hundred species from
several phyla. (e.g., Konrad et al., 2008; Resh, 2008; Astorga et al., 2011; Demars et al., 2012).
They study evolutionary processes such as adaptation and speciation (Culver and Pipan 2013).
Macroinvertebrates help to keep caves' complex faunal assemblages stable. (Nuneza et.al, 2014).
Cave ecosystem conservation is critical not only because cave ecosystems host unique and
fragile biodiversity (Mammola, 2019). Yet the Taman cave is an unexplored beautiful cave, this
study considers multiple theories for the species richness, relative abundance, diversity, and
conservation status of the macroinvertebrates species the following area the theories: the Habitat
Templet Theory, Hierarchical Modelling of Species Communities (HMSC), relative species
abundance (RSA), Neutral theory, niche theory, species-area relationship (SAR) theory, and
Appropriate tests of disturbance theory.

The Habitat Templet Theory, this theory is to match the species and their habitats for life-
history strategies and, simultaneously, determines the presence and abundance of these
organisms at distinct scales. also this work both terrestrial and aquatic(e.g., Statzner et al., 1994;
Ribera et al., 2001; Thuiller et al., 2004). According to Bonda et.al (2007), the Taxa richness is
higher in summer than in winter in the Mediterranean river. Through season or temperature, this
theory can apply the taxa richness in the Taman cave. Species-Area Relationship (SAR) theory
also focuses on the alpha richness in ponds and lakes and Lakes are thought to have a higher
species diversity than ponds. (Martinez-Sanz,2012)

Hierarchical Modelling of Species Communities (HMSC) In determining species

distribution and habitat suitability, the spatial factors were linked to influential environmental
gradients (e.g., temperature, nutrient resources, and anthropogenic disturbances) that directly
affect community structure and biodiversity, elevation does play a crucial role. Second, they find
that species interaction and dispersal are crucial in metacommunity structuring, and both may
have major effects on biodiversity variations in the rivers studied (e.g., Ruggiero and Hawkins,
2008; Bertuzzo et al., 2016).

Studies Conducted

Overview and Taxonomy of Macroinvertebrates

Macroinvertebrates are species with no backbone that are visible by the human eye and
are part of; creatures that are susceptible to different habitats such as aquatic or terrestrial.
Throughout this study of macroinvertebrates in the cave, each species such as ants, crickets,
arthropods, benthic, dragonflies, and worms represent essential roles in preserving the diversity
of cave faunal assemblages (Salaga, 2020). Additionally, the abundance of benthic
macroinvertebrates species has proven that they are usually used as indicators of territorial water.
The terrestrial macroinvertebrates that belong to the taxonomic group of fauna can also be found
be called an indicator (Bisevac & Majer, 1999; Gerlach et al., 2013). Furthermore,
macroinvertebrates are accurately essential to ecosystems. Hence, macroinvertebrates are not yet
endangered. In the investigation by Enriquez and Nuñeza (2014), in three ecological zones of the
cave, they identified the population of spiders, ants (Batucan & Nuñeza 2013), and crickets
(Lagare and Nuñeza, 2013; Novises and Nuñeza, 2014) that simulates by the factors of
temperature, relative humidity, and cave surface. In cave ecosystems according to Weckerly
(2012), due to the huge population of cave crickets, they are symbolized as keystone species.
Arthropods such as spiders represent sustenance for the other cave organisms as well as
predators and hetero-trophic (Suhardjono et al. 2012). Groups of spiders as well specifically play
a role in expanding habitats with a wide range of lifestyles, behaviors as well as morphological
adaptations (Saini et al 2013). Additionally, in cave ecosystems, arthropods lead as various
groups of species with wealth and roles in the ecosystem (Romero 2009). Moreover, the
arthropods take part in determining the stability of the cave ecosystem (Rahmadi 2002). The type
of spider Arachnida implements a principal component of subterranean trophic webs (Deharveng
& Bedos 2019). They live as typical ecological predator roles and are a diversity of functional
adaptions, acting as a model for inspecting a variety of subjects such as ecological and
evolutionary (Mammola & Isaia 2017). As for the abundance of nematodes in caves, its group is
as well as inhabited by the habitats that are subterranean environments incidental to terrestrial
and aquatic (freshwater/marine), whether natural or manmade, (Culver & Pipan, 2009; Borgonie
et al., 2011; Bonaglia et al., 2014). The nematodes are a being that acts as a food source for the
predators (e.g., copepod Eucyclops subterraneus scythicus Plesa, 1989) and its assemblage has
taken the central role part in the food web (Muschiol et al., 2015). Odonates are essential to be
used as a bioindicator of the habitat quality (Clark & Sam ways, 1996; Sahlén & Ekestubbe,
2001; Foote & Rice Hornung, 2005; Subramanian et al., 2008; Clausnitzer et al., 2009; Dolný et
al., 2011).  Benthic macro-invertebrates interpret the role of being the main consumer in lotic
ecosystems, contained by diverse order with divergent life cycles, roles, and trophic traits.
Flatworms, earthworms, snails, slugs, insect larvae, isopods, springtails, and others are
omnivorous predators of native soil invertebrates. Its invasion is consequential for local
ecosystems, affecting the system of nutrient cycling, menacing native species, and alternating the
communities of a plant (Sluys 2016). By taking part in studying these species, assesses their
morphotaxonomy, richness, diversity, and conservation status. It can additionally be used to
maintain the environment properly in a better condition. Based on the read literature, it was able
to provide a connected paragraph about macroinvertebrate species in a cave that could be
expressed in a study like this. This study focuses on cave category and morphotaxonomic
subjects, diversity, and the conservation status of the species in Taman Cave, Malaybalay City,
Bukidnon, and does not implement treatment of species about a phylogenetic and deeper
reference in interactions within the cave ecosystems. In addition, it can be used as a guide in
subjects that relate to this study.

The morphological and taxonomic composition of macroinvertebrates.

The abundance of other taxa from the cave floor positively correlated with a floor
substrate of high pH and low moisture, which was common near the cave entrance. Inventories
of cave species and an in-depth understanding of cave ecosystems are essential for informing
conservation approaches for the unique and vulnerable cave fauna (Hasselberg et.al, 2020).

Among these habitats, the cave ecosystem which is among the most fascinating
environments on Earth (Yap et al 2011) constitutes strong environmental filters and an excellent
system to study community assembly patterns (Cardoso 2012) provides a home for many species
of spiders that may reside temporarily or permanently inside. A quantitative survey of the cave’s
macroinvertebrates is necessary for an inventory of the cave’s macroinvertebrates taxa and for
improving the ecological understanding of the caves and hence informing conservation priorities
(Wynne et al 2019).  There is no published literature on macroinvertebrate assemblages of the
cave despite their crucial role in cave ecosystem functions (Cooke and Baillieul 1974;
Dandurand et al. 2019).  Hundreds and even thousands of caves are scattered throughout the
7,107 islands of the Philippines. Despite these numbers, only a few studies on caves and cave
fauna were conducted (Lavoie et al 2007). Cave habitats are usually dark and with almost
constant geographical factors, temperature, saturated humidity, and low energy input (Biswas,
2010). Due to this kind of environment, cave-dwelling organisms have shown some structural
modification, behavioral changes, and specialized functions (Pan et al., 2010). Based on the cited
studies, clearly states the reasoning behind the morphological and taxonomic composition of
macroinvertebrates. This study focuses based on the morphology and taxonomy of
macroinvertebrates which could be applied in the current study in Taman Cave, Malaybalay
City, Bukidnon. In conclusion, it acts as a guide for the composition of macroinvertebrates that
could aid the current study. 

Local Literature

The studies cited in this chapter cover a wide range of ideas, concepts, generalizations,
conclusions, and different study developments. The researchers will use this as a guide in
developing their study. Furthermore, the information included in this chapter aids in
familiarizing the details that are similar to the present study. The following studies are:

The study of Macud and Nuñeza (2014) entitled Diversity of cave macro-invertebrates in
Mighty Cave, Tagoloan, Lanao del Norte, Philippines is related to the present study, as it deals
with the diversity and relative abundance of cave macro-invertebrates located here in the
Philippines.

From their species richness on results and discussion, in the different zones in Mighty
Cave in Tagoloan, Lanao Del Norte, ten macroinvertebrates’ species belonging to six orders in
the different zones were documented. According to Macud & Nuñeza (2014), ten
macroinvertebrates species that were recorded are the following; one species of Amblypygi
(whip spider), one species of Aranea (tarantula), three species of Blattodea (cockroaches), one
species of Coleoptera (weevil), and one species of Coleoptera (beetle), one species of Decapoda
(crab), and one species of Gastropoda (snail), one species of Orthoptera (cave cricket). Similar to
the previous study, the factors affecting the presence of macro-invertebrates in the different
zones of the cave are guano deposits, temperature, and relative humidity. They also stated that
the result of their recorded number of macroinvertebrates was lower compared to foreign
research "Pape (2014) and Wynne et al., (2007) in Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, which
include spiders, beetles, flies, amphipods, harvestmen mites, springtails, and diplurans." They
also compared their result with other results similar to their study here in Mindanao, namely; a
study in Mindanao caves that recorded 18 species of spiders (Enriquez & Nuñeza, 2014), Low
species richness of crickets (Novises & Nuñeza, 2014), and cockroaches (Mag-Usara & Nuñeza,
2014)."
 In the Species abundance and distribution in the different subsites/cave zones on their
results and discussion, the two species, Pachyrrhynchus sp. and Aceraius sp. under Order
Coleoptera, were found only in the twilight zone. In all zones, Melanoides granifera, Laxta
granicollis, and Polyzosteria sp. were found to be present. The number of macro-invertebrate
species was lowest in the twilight zone. According to Macud & Nuñeza (2014), the number of
macro-invertebrate species was lowest in the twilight zone. Furthermore, they stated that the
deep zone with the thickest guano deposit had the highest species richness and abundance. Aside
from that, the most abundant was Macropathus sp. They also stated that Transition zone 2 had
the most diversity of the four cave zones, while the twilight zone had the least. Thus, the
presence of macroinvertebrates relies or depends on the cave area situation or the amount of
guano deposit found in the cave.

The study of Salaga (2020) entitled Cave macro-invertebrates in Linao, San Isidro, Davao
del Norte, Philippines is related to the present study as it determines the diversity, richness, and
relative abundance of the cave macro-invertebrates in an unexplored cave located in Mindanao. 

From his results and discussion, in Kasilak Cave, San Isidro, Davao del Norte, eleven
species of macro-invertebrates belonging to six orders were documented. The species that were
recorded are the following; one species of Charon sp. (whip spider), two species of (tarantula)
Selenocosmia sp. and Phlogiellus sp., one species of Heteropoda sp. (huntsman spider), one
species of Sundathelpusa sp. (freshwater crab), two species of (land snails) Cyclophorus
linguiform and Lamarckiella mindanaensis, three species of (freshwater snails) Stenomelania
clavus, Stenomelania punctata, Stenomelania sobria and one species of Ceuthophilus sp. (cave
cricket). According to the author, only Cyclophorus linguiform and Lamarckiella mindanaensis
were found at the entrance, whereas the most abundant species inside the cave found is
Sundathelpusa sp. 

In the Biodiversity indices on results and discussions, Salaga (2020) stated that the four
zones were found to have moderate species diversity, with the transition zone having the most
with eleven species documented and the deep zone having the least with only five species of
macroinvertebrates.
 In the Existing threats to Kasilak Cave, Salaga (2020) stated that the remains of a few
alcoholic drink bottles containing kerosene that was used as a light source every time the
residents entered and some aluminum; were observed from the unexplored cave. The author also
stated that another threat to the cave is guano collection for agricultural purposes, where guano is
used as fertilizer on the farms, based on the information he gathered from local guides. He also
cited Eberhard (2001) that the anthropogenic factors that may directly affect the fauna of a cave
leading to disturbance in the populations of species and perhaps affect the microclimate of a
cave, nutrients in, puts, and migration of cave fauna are visiting the cave, recreational activities,
and pollution. Hence, this study is similar to the previous study because macroinvertebrates are
found in cave areas rich in guano deposits, and caves were disturbed by human activities.

The study of Sobrepena and Nuñeza (2014) titled Cave macro-invertebrates of Wao,
Lanao Del Sur, Philippines is connected to the current research study, as it determines the
richness of species, relative abundance, and macroinvertebrates diversity in caves.

From their Species Distribution and Relative Abundance on results and discussion, in
Wao, Lanao del Sur, the ten cave macro-invertebrate species belonging to seven orders were
identified (Sobrepena & Nuñeza, 2014). As per Sobrepena & Nuñeza (2014), seven species are
in Cave 1 at Barangay Amoyong, and four species from Cave 2 at Barangay Piriruan were
observed. According to them, the macroinvertebrates in the cave that were identified are the
following; one species of Amblypygi (whip spider), two species of Araneae (huntsman spiders),
one species of Araneae (tarantula), one species of Blattodea (cockroach), two species of
Hymenoptera (ants), one species of Mantodea (mantis), one species of Orthoptera (cave cricket
or cave-weta), and one species of Opiliones (harvestmen). They stated that the higher species
richness is in Cave 1 than in Cave 2. The difference in the cave structure and the number of
guano deposits in the two caves could be the reason (Sobrepena & Nuneza, 2014). As stated by
them, the most abundant species comprising half of the species recorded are the Macropathus sp.
Aside from that, in an area of the cave, such as the cave wall and floor, the majority of the
macro-invertebrate species were found.

According to their results, high relative humidity and low temperature are areas where
cave macroinvertebrates prefer to live. The existing threats to the macro-invertebrates in their
results and discussion stated that in the caves in Wao, the following were observed and indicated
disturbances; graffiti on the walls and roof of the cave, remains of a bonfire on the entrance zone,
and garbage left inside the cave. Furthermore, in Cave 2, in the transition zone of the cave, a
wooden chair was observed, and in the deep zone, a bed was located. Moreover, Cave 2 is
utilized by some people as temporary living quarters. Therefore, this study is related to Salaga's
study (2020) titled Cave macro-invertebrates in Linao, San Isidro, Davao del Norte, Philippines,
where human activities may affect the cave and cave species. Fewer macroinvertebrates are
found in caves that have little to no guano deposits. Caves serve as shelter for species. The law
regarding the protection of caves is not taken seriously by the public in these caves.

Cave spiders in Mindanao, the Philippines by Enriquez and Nuñeza (2014) is related to
the current study because this serves as a guide in collecting cave spiders and determining the
diversity, and the microhabitat of spiders in caves.

The results and discussions stated that from the 11 cave sites surveyed, they recorded
eighteen species of spiders belonging to two orders, 12 families, and 12 genera. In all sites of the
caves, a Damon medius (hunt spider) was found. Aside from that, the highest number of species
was in Cave 10 in Tarragona, Davao Oriental, whereas the least number of species was in caves
3 and 4 in Quezon, Bukidnon. They also explained why there were only one spider species in
caves 3 and 4, and it was because of the presence of high anthropogenic disturbances in the area.
Furthermore, the wall of the entrance zone was the most preferred microhabitat of the majority of
spider species, with seven species documented. They also stated that the web spinners were the
most of the species of spiders found at the entrance zone of the caves. Additionally, at the
entrance zone of the cave, Diaea variants were always found on the floor. The most abundant
species that was present in all cave sites and widely distributed in the twilight and inner zones of
the cave is the Damon medius. 

The temperature was stated that range from 23.3 °C to 27.5 °C in all caves from the
entrance zone to the inner zone. In three ecological cave zones, particularly in caves 6, 8, 9, and
11, high relative humidity (92%) was recorded where the relative humidity is constant, whereas
in cave 3, in the inner zone, the least value (84.3%) was recorded. Hence, the temperature,
humidity, and the cave area affect the presence of spiders in these eleven caves. The smallest
species are in an area where the cave is disturbed. In Mindanao, high anthropogenic activities
seem to harm the diversity of cave spiders (Enriquez & Nuñeza 2014).

The study of Lagare and Nuñeza (2013) entitled the cavernicolous crickets in selected
caves in Davao Oriental and northern Mindanao, Philippines is related to the current study as it
serves as a guide in the collection of cave crickets and determining the richness and diversity of
cave crickets in Mindanao.

According to their results, they recorded eight hundred twenty-six individuals in the 19
selected cave sites in Mindanao. Macropathus sp. of Family Rhaphidophoridae was found to be
the most abundant (59.07%) and widely distributed in 15 out of the 19 cave sites. A cluster of
Macropathus sp. was observed on the cave floors with thick guano. On the other hand, Endacusta
sp., one of the cavernicolous species of subfamily Phalangopsinae comprised 40.79% of the total
number of individuals and were distributed in 14 cave sites, and they were mostly found roosting
on dry cave walls and crevices in the twilight zone area. Lastly, only one individual of
Pteronemobius sp. (0.121%) was observed near the cave entrance and absent in all other 18 cave
sites. They explained that the large caves with stable temperature and relative humidity were
found to have a more abundant number of crickets while the least number of crickets was
observed in extensively disturbed caves as observed in two cave sites in Gitagum, Misamis
Oriental. Common threats observed in the caves include extensive vandalism, treasure hunting,
and the use of the cave as a recreational area. It is recommended that more extensive surveys
should be done on caves in Mindanao to better understand the ecology of cave crickets. 

The study by Novises and Nuñeza (2014) titled Species richness and abundance of cave-
dwelling crickets on Siargao Island, Surigao Del Norte, Philippines is connected to the current
study as it can guide us to determine the species richness, evenness, distribution, and abundance
of cavernicolous crickets.

Their results and discussions stated that three species of crickets with 644 individuals
were recorded in eight out of the 10 caves sampled. The cave sampling was conducted in four
municipalities of Siargao Island namely Burgos, Del Carmen, General Luna, and Sta. Monica.
Buho cave had the highest number of cricket species, whereas no crickets were observed in
Naogon cave and Cave II. Ceuthophilus sp. which was observed on cave holes, bedrock ceilings,
and floors was found to be the most abundant. Along with Pteronemobius sp., the second most
abundant (42.92%) was observed on cave walls and crevices in the twilight zone. Ultimately,
only one individual of Gryllotalpa sp. was present in only one cave site. They explained that the
abundance of crickets could be due to the rich guano material and boulders inside the cave, and
the absence was because boulders and guano materials were absent together with the presence of
anthropogenic activities.

The study of Flores and Zarafalla (2012) entitled Macroinvertebrate Composition,

Diversity and Richness concerning the Water Quality Status of Mananga River, Cebu,
Philippines is related to the present study as it aims to assess the water quality status of Mananga
River and how this influences macroinvertebrate diversity and richness.

According to their results and discussions, the water quality of Mananga River was
assessed by selected physicochemical factors combined with the macroinvertebrate composition
and diversity indices. The physicochemical factors influenced the composition and diversity of
macroinvertebrates in the Mananga River. The outcome was a total of 37 families representing
15 orders were then recorded. The aquatic insects T (Class Hexapoda) made up 58.6% of total
abundance followed by the gastropods (Class Gastropoda) at 39.9%. Together with the order,
Ephemeroptera of Hexapoda had the highest abundance (47.6% of total) and highest richness (6
families). The macroinvertebrate richness and diversity were significantly higher in the upper
stations, but there was an apparent lack of seasonal variation. Also, almost all taxa were
represented in the upper stations, except for Neritidae, Grapsidae, and Nereididae, which were
limited to the downstream station. In conclusion, the river’s environmental factors affected the
macroinvertebrate assemblages; it shows that macroinvertebrates were useful indicators of the
water quality in the Mananga River. The results could serve as a reference and guide in
evaluating future water quality changes and studies, as well as providing insights on how to
protect the river’s biodiversity.

The study of Batucan and Nuñeza (2013) entitled Ant species richness in caves of
Siargao island protected landscape and seascape, Philippines is related to our current study as it
guides us to determine the cave ant species abundance and diversity in Siargao Island Protected
Landscape and Seascape.
 The results and discussions stated that fourteen species of ants were collected in nine
separate caves in Siargao Island whilst the Million-bat cave yielded the highest species richness
(5) and only one species each were found in the three other caves (Bulod 2, Naughton, and Cave
2). The collected Pheidologeton sp. and Odontomachus sp. Were in three of the caves, wherein
the two the caves were adjacent to each other. On the other hand, Myrmicaria brunnea and
Dolichoderus thoracicus were found in two caves, while the rest was only found in one cave.
Moreover, ten species of ants were found at the entrance zone of all caves, four from the twilight
zone, and three from the deep zone. The species richness of ants was abundant in large caves
with guano deposits. It was highest at the entrance zone of the caves and lowest at the deep or
inner zone.

The study by Balisco, Gonzales, and Dolorosa (2022) entitled Economically Important
Benthic Macroinvertebrates in the Reefs of West Sulu Sea, Palawan, Philippines is related to the
current study as it aims to assess the species composition, population density, uses, and
conservation status of economically important benthic macroinvertebrates. 

Their results and discussions stated that a total of 100 transects from six sites (3–10-m
depth) covering a reef area of 25,000 m2 were assessed using scuba diving. They encountered a
total of 15 economically important benthic macroinvertebrate species belonging to 11 families
during the different surveys: one crustacean species (Phylum Arthropoda), five sea cucumbers,
and sea urchins (Phylum Echinodermata), and nine gastropods and bivalve species (Phylum
Mollusca). Across the sites, the most common species was Tridacna crocea, being noted in all
sites. Holothuria edulis, T. rubralineata, T. maxima, C. miles, C. Tigris, P. margaritifera, A.
pectinata, and L. lambis occurred only in one site. The number of economically important
benthic macroinvertebrate species encountered in the surveyed sites is considered “low” in
comparison with the other studies. Due to the limited sampling time, most of the species
recorded are diurnal (i.e., active during the daytime), and nocturnal species may not have been
detected as the surveys were conducted between 08:00 AM–03:00 PM). Most of the species
encountered have “Least Concern” and “Not Evaluated” status, whereas endangered species that
were recorded before are already difficult to find in the surveyed sites. 
 Framework of the Study

Assessment of Cave Methods Results

Macroinvertebrate in
Taman Cave Collection of the species -Forms and structure of the
species in Taman cave are
-Morphotaxonomy -Preservation identified. 

a. Form -Classification and -Alpha Richness

b. structure characterization of
macroinvertebrates - Conservation status of
Macroinvertebrates

-Identification of species in
CMU laboratories

As shown in Figure 1, the classification and characterization of macroinvertebrates will

be identified according to their form and structure. For the macroinvertebrates collection, the
study will be using the following materials; 1x1 m wooden quadrat, tweezers, Pitfall traps, and
Kick nets. For the sampling methods, the study will implement multiple methods, namely;
opportunistic visual searches, hand searching, hand grabbing techniques, and the use of the
materials that were mentioned. After the collection process, the collected macroinvertebrates
sample will be stored in plastic vials/cups (for smaller-sized macroinvertebrates) and plastic
containers (for larger-sized macroinvertebrates); both will be filled with 70% ethanol for
invertebrate preservation. The collected macroinvertebrate species will be characterized based on
the structure of their head, bodies, legs, and tails. The species' head will be also assessed to
determine the presence or absence of antennae, as well as the structure of the eyes and mouth.
The species' body will be assessed to determine the type of exoskeleton that it possesses and the
presence or absence of wings. The species' legs and tails will be assessed to determine its
presence or absences; and if present, determine the number of legs and tails that it possesses. In
addition, taxonomic keys will still be utilized for taxonomic treatment to identify the lineage of
the collected macroinvertebrate species.