FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

MIDTERM TOPICS
Topic 1 . Individual Differences: Types, Causes and Role |
Psychology
Article Shared by 

In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Definitions of Individual Differences 2. Types of Individual
Differences 3. Causes of Individual Differences 4. Role of Individual Differences in Education. 

Definitions of Individual Differences:

1. Drever James:
“Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or
physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual
differences.”
ADVERTISEMENTS:

2. Good, C.V.:
“The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single characteristics or a number of
characteristics, those differences which in their totality distinguish one individual from another.”

3. Skinner, C.E.:
“Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total personality.”

4. Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G.:

“Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics physical mental
abilities, knowledge, habit, personality and character traits.”
“The psychology of individual differences is largely the study of group differences. This study classifies
individuals by age, traits, sex, race, social class and so on, and observes the differences within and
between those groups. Physical, mental, social and cultural differences etc. are being studied, under
individual differences.” – John P.De Ceeceo
Perhaps the first task of every teacher in a class should be to know and study individual differences
among his pupils. Individual differences in bodily appearance and physique, habits and skills, interests
and temperaments, abilities and attainments have already been recognised.

According to Skinner, “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of
the total personality.” It is clear from this definition of individual differences that it comprehends every
aspect of human personality which is in some manner measurable.

Types of Individual Differences:

1. Physical differences:
Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of complexion, fatness, thinness, or weakness are
various physical individual differences.

2. Differences in intelligence:
There are differences in intelligence level among different individuals. We can classify the individuals
from super-normal (above 120 I.Q.) to idiots (from 0 to 50 I.Q.) on the basis of their intelligence level.

3. Differences in attitudes:
Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people, objects, institutions and authority.

4. Differences in achievement:
It has been found through achievement tests that individuals differ in their achievement abilities. These
differences are very much visible in reading, writing and in learning mathematics.

These differences in achievement are even visible among the children who are at the same level of
intelligence. These differences are on account of the differences in the various factors of intelligence
and the differences in the various experiences, interests and educational background.

5. Differences in motor ability:

There are differences in motor ability. These differences are visible at different ages. Some people can
perform mechanical tasks easily, while others, even though they are at the same level, feel much
difficulty in performing these tasks.

6. Differences on account of sex:

McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences between men and women, on
the basis of some studies:
(i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.

(ii) Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and logic.

(iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and smell etc., while men
show greater reaction and conscious of size- weight illusion.

(iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics and chemistry.

(v) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men were found to be three
times of such faults in women.

(vi) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many colour blind men
as there are women.

(vii) Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school and home and day-
dreaming and show various levels in their play. On the other hand boys take interest in stories of
bravery, science, war, scouting, stories of games and sports, stories and games of occupation and skill.

7. Racial differences:
There are different kinds of racial differences. Differences of environment is a normal factor in causing
these differences. Karl Brigham has composed a list on the basis of differences in levels of intelligence
among people who have migrated to United States from other countries.

On the basis of these average differences between the races, the mental age of a particular individual
cannot be calculated since this difference is based on environment.

8. Differences due to nationality:

Individuals of different nations differ in respect of physical and mental differences, interests and
personality etc. ‘Russians are tall and stout’; ‘Ceylonese are short and slim’; ‘Germans have no sense of
humour’; ‘Yellow races are cruel and revengeful’; ‘Americans are hearty and frank’; Indians are timid
and peace-loving’ and the like observations enter into our common talk.

9. Differences due to economic status:

Differences in children’s interests, tendencies and character are caused by economic differences.
10. Differences in interests:
Factors such as sex, family background level of development, differences of race and nationality etc.,
cause differences in interests.

11. Emotional differences:

Individuals differ in their emotional reactions to a particular situation. Some are irritable and aggressive
and they get angry very soon. There are others who are of peaceful nature and do not get angry easily.
At a particular thing an individual may be so much enraged that he may be prepared for the worst
crime like murder, while another person may only laugh at it.

12. Personality differences:

There are differences in respect of personality. On the basis of differences in personality, individuals
have been classified into many groups.

Spranger, for example, has classified personalities into six types:

(a) Theoretical,

(b) Economic

(c) Aesthetic,

(d) Social,

(e) Political, and

(f) Religious.

Jung classified people into three groups:

(a) Introverts,

(b) Extroverts, and

(c) Ambiverts.

Trottor divided individuals into:

(a) Stable minded, and

(b) Unstable minded.

Jordon thinks of personalities into:
(a) Active, and

(b) Reflective type.

Thorndike has classified people into four categories on the basis of thinking:
(a) Abstract thinkers,

(b) Ideational thinkers,

(c) Object thinkers, and

(d) Thinkers in whom sensory experience is predominant.

Terman has classified people into nine classes according to their level of intelligence:
(a) Genius,

(b) Near genius

(c) Very superior,

(d) Superior,

(e) Average,

(f) Backward,

(g) Feebleminded,

(h) Dull, and

(i) Idiot.

It is an admitted fact that some people are honest, others are dishonest, some are aggressive, others
are humble, some are social, others like to be alone, some are critical and others are sympathetic. Thus
we see that the differences in personality are dependent on personality traits. Teacher should keep in
mind these differences while imparting education to the pupils.

Causes of Individual Differences:

Some of the main causes of individual differences are as under:
1. Heredity:
One of the most significant and chief causes of individual differences is heredity. Individuals inherit
various physical traits like face with its features, colour of eyes and hair, type of skin, shape of skull and
size of hands, colour blindness, baldness, stub-finger and tendency to certain diseases like cancer and
tuberculosis, mental traits like intelligence, abstract thinking, aptitudes and prejudices. Now it is an
admitted fact that heredity differences result in the quantity and rate of physical as well as mental
development being different and different individuals.

2. Environment:
Environment significantly influences individual differences. Changes in child’s environment are reflected
in the changes in his personality. Psychologically speaking, a person’s environment consists of sum total
of stimulation which he receives from conception until his death.

Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and cultural forces. All
these forces cause individual differences. Modern psychologists believe that individual differences are
caused by both heredity and environment. Personality is the outcome of mutual interaction between
heredity and environment.

3. Influence of caste, race and nation:

Individuals of different castes and races exhibit very marked differences. It is generally seen that son of
a Kshatriya has a more of courage in him while the son of a trader has the traits of business.

Similarly individuals of different nations show differences in respect of their personality, character and
mental abilities. These are the outcome of their geographical, social and cultural environment. Many
studies have shown the existence of differences between Americans and Negroes, Chineese and
Japaneese, English and Indian individuals.

4. Sex differences:
Development of boys and girls exhibits differences due to difference in sex. The physical development
of the girl takes place a year or two earlier than the boys. Between the age of 11 and 14, girls are taller
and heavier than the boys. After 15, boys start winning the race.

Girls are kind, affectionate, sympathetic and tender while the boys are brave, hard, choleric, efficient
and competent.

5. Age and intelligence:

Physical, intellectual and emotional development is caused by the growth in age. Many individuals differ
because of the differences in intelligence. Individuals who are below the average in intelligence and
mental age find much difficulty in learning and the average intelligent persons can learn quickly.

6. Temperament and emotional stability:

Some people are by temperament active and quick, while others are passive and slow, some humorous
and others short tempered. Emotional stability of the individual is differently affected by physical,
mental and environmental factors. Differences in emotional stability cause individual differences.

7. Other Causes:
Interests, aptitudes, achievements, sentiments, character, educational and home background lead to
individual differences.

8. Economic condition and education:

Individual differences are caused by economic condition of the parents and the education of the
children. It is not possible for the children of two economic classes to have a similarity and equality.

Role of Individual Differences in Education:

One of the important objectives of modern education is the complete development of the individual.
Individuals have different goals, different interests, different emotional problems and different abilities.
We cannot afford to ignore these individual differences in imparting education to children. Since school
work is planned on group basis it presents a formidable challenge to all teachers.

Hence some practical procedures for adapting school work to individual differences are
suggested:
1. Limited size of the class:
Generally there are 50 or more than 50 students in a class. In such a large class, it is not possible for
the teacher to pay individual attention to the students. The size of the class should be small. It should
be divided into various units so that after class-room work their various difficulties may be found out.

2. Proper division of the class:

Now there are separate classes for the students, who have different intelligence. While bringing about
this classification, the teacher should keep in mind the difference in age, interests, emotional and social
qualities.

3. Home task:
The teacher should assign home task to the students while keeping in view the individual differences.
4. Factor of sex:
Boys and girls are to play different roles in society. Hence the factor of sex should be kept in mind.

5. Curriculum:
The curriculum should be modified to suit the needs of all types of children. A large number of subjects
should be included in the curriculum so that education can be provided to each child according to his
interests, needs and abilities. Curriculum should not be rigid but it should be flexible.

If we lay down the same curriculum for all the students, the brilliant students will not be able to have
full mental diet, and the backward students and the students of lower I.Q. will lag far behind in the
class, and they may start playing truancy from the school.

6. Methods of Teaching:
Methods of teaching should be chosen on the basis of individual differences. It is not advisable to use
the same method of education in the case of all children-gifted or backward.

7. Educational Guidance:
Teacher should impart educational guidance to the students while keeping in view their individual
differences. He can assist them in the selection of educational career, selection of subjects, selection of
books, selection of hobbies and co-curricular activities and in many other areas connected with
education.

8. Vocational Guidance:
While keeping in view the individual differences the teacher can guide the students in the vocation that
they should adopt.

9. Individual Training:
Many plans and techniques for individualizing instructions have been advocated.

Some of these plans are as under:

(i) Dalton Plan:
This plan was introduced by Miss Helen Parkhurst at Dalton. According to this plan, the school is
regarded as a ‘children house.’ The principles underlying the plan are freedom, co-operation and
allocation of time. The pupils are free to continue without interruption the work in which they are
absorbed, unhindered by time tables.
They are not taught in classrooms. They are given subjects that suit their interests. The advantage of
this plan is that each pupil is allowed to proceed at his own rate and in accordance with this individual
ability. Thus the instructions are completely individualized.

(ii) Morrison Plan:

This Plan was devised by Professor H.Q. Morrison of the University of Chicago. This plan is based on
directed guidance and stresses unit assignment. To establish learning unit is an important task in the
Morrison plan. The plan is based on individual needs and interests.

(iii) Winnetka Plan:

This plan was instituted by C.W. Washburne in the school of Winnetka, Illinois. This plan is based on
the principle that the pupils should be allowed to follow his own rate of learning in each of the subjects
of his curriculum. Before instituting this plan it is observed through an examination that how much an
individual already knows. On the basis of it, specific learning unit is planned for him.

Progress is checked by the pupils himself by means of self-administered tests. The advantages of this
plan are that the backward and the intelligent are to proceed at their own rates. Moreover, there are no
failures since the pupil is measured against his own progress.

(iv) Contract Plan:

In this plan, the subjects of study are determined like the Dalton method; the pupil’s progress is
measured through tests like the Winnetka method. Thus this plan is a synthesis of Dalton and Winnetka
methods.

(v) Project method:

This method was suggested by Kilpatrick. In this method each member of the group can work in terms
of his interest and ability. Hence this method is also in the direction of individualization of instructions.

TOPIC 2 : WHAT ARE THE FOUR LEARNING STYLES?

The four core learning styles in the VARK model include visual, auditory, reading and writing, and
kinesthetic. Here’s an overview of all four learning style types.

1. Visual - Visual learners are better able to retain information when it’s presented to them in a
graphic depiction, such as arrows, charts, diagrams, symbols, and more. Similar to
how designers use visual hierarchy to emphasize specific design elements, visual learners
thrive with clear pictures of information hierarchy.
 2. Auditory - Sometimes referred to as “aural” learners, auditory learners prefer listening to
information that is presented to them vocally. These learners work well in group settings
where vocal collaboration is present and may enjoy reading aloud to themselves, too.
3. Reading & Writing - Focusing on the written word, reading and writing learners succeed
with written information on worksheets, presentations, and other text-heavy resources. These
learners are note-takers and perform strongly when they can reference written text.

4. Kinesthetic - Taking a physically active role, kinesthetic learners are hands-on and thrive
when engaging all of their senses during course work. These learners tend to work well in
scientific studies due to the hands-on lab component of the course. 

The VARK Model: Four Types of Learning Styles

Successfully implementing the VARK model into your classroom means recognizing your students’
unique educational needs on a fundamental level.

Learning Style Type #1: Visual Learners

How to Identify This Learning Style Type: Visual Learners

Visual learners enjoy analyzing and observing things like pictures, diagrams, and charts that showcase
clear information in order of importance. You can oftentimes find visual learners by paying attention to
students who are doodling, list-making, or note-taking. 

How to Teach This Learning Style Type: Visual Learners

Whether you’re using a whiteboard, smartboard, or giving a presentation, make sure visual learners
have enough time to process and absorb visual cues. When possible, visual learners should have access
to supplementary handouts that detail subject matter through clear visuals whenever possible.
Additionally, allow these learners to draw pictures, diagrams, or doodles of what they are learning to
reinforce retention.
Sphero and littleBits Activities Visual Learners Will Love

Draw 1: Shapes

With this visual learning activity, your child will be introduced to Sphero’s Draw canvas by drawing
shapes that represent code. Then, they can execute that code with a Sphero robot. Perfect for visual
learners, your students will be able to hand-draw their very own robot to showcase their programming
skills.

BOLT: Light Sensor

With flashlights or other portable light sources (cell phones work well), this activity for visual learners
allows your students to discover BOLT’s ambient light sensor. The light sensor allows BOLT to sense the
amount of light it is exposed to during a program, which means your students will be able to see light
act as a trigger for conditionals or dynamic functions. 
 

Learning Style Type #2: Auditory Learners

How to Identify This Type of Learning Style: Auditory Learners

Auditory learners prefer learning subject matter that is presented through sound. You can find auditory
learners by paying attention to students who are actively engaging with a lecture. You may find them
nodding along or asking frequent questions rather than taking written notes. Additionally, these
learners might read slowly, read aloud to themselves, or repeat things you tell them to help with
retention.

How to Teach This Type of Learning Style: Auditory Learners 

If you’re giving a lecture, make sure you are addressing your auditory learners directly to get them
involved in the conversation. Have them do things like verbally detailing a new concept they just
learned, and ask them follow-up questions while giving them the time they need to respond. Group
discussions, engaging videos, and audio recordings are other great ways to engage auditory learners in
your classroom. 
Sphero and littleBits Activities Auditory Learners Will Love

Back to the Future 

In this exciting activity for auditory learners, your students will recreate the Delorean time
machine from the “Back to the Future” movies. First, they will program RVR to accelerate to a speed of
88 to time travel. Then, they will build their very own invention with the littleBits RVR Topper Kit, which
triggers a buzzer when RVR is safely back to the future. If your students have never seen the “Back to
the Future” movies, you can show them short scenes to help orient this activity.

Bubble Flute 

With a few simple materials and a littleBits STEAM Kit, your auditory learner can use the sound of their
voice to create bubbles. This challenge allows your students to experiment with sound waves and learn
how common items interact with each other to make something new.

Learning Style Type #3: Reading & Writing Learners

How to Identify This Learning Style in the Classroom: Reading & Writing Learners

Preferring written word, reading, and writing learners are drawn to textbooks, novels, articles, journals,
and anything that is text-heavy. Similar to visual learners, you can find reading and writing learners by
paying attention to students who take elaborate notes, reference the dictionary to learn new words, or
use online search engines to find answers to their questions.

How to Teach This Learning Style Type: Reading & Writing Learners
Writing essays, performing in-depth research, reading textbooks, and more, reading, and writing
learners prefer more traditional methods of subject matter delivery. However, make sure these learners
have ample time to absorb written course material and give them every opportunity to get their ideas
down on paper or a digital device.

Sphero and littleBits Activities Reading & Writing Learners Will Love
Bridge Challenge 

The Bridge Challenge starts with your students researching and learning about different types of
bridges used in architecture, which is perfect for reading and writing learners. Then, using common
household belongings or craft supplies — such as tape, string, glue, and popsicle sticks — they can use
their newfound knowledge to build a bridge that a Sphero robot can drive across. 

The Masked Sphero

In this activity, you can have your reading and writing learners research the history and importance of
cloth face coverings. Then, they can write a short essay on how wearing a mask can help protect others
by minimizing airborne bacteria. Afterward, your class can create a mask out of tissue paper for their
Sphero BOLT to protect its sensor against incoming light. This activity provides a direct representation
of how germs can spread more easily without face coverings. 

Learning Style Type #4: Kinesthetic Learners

How to Identify This Type of Learning Style: Kinesthetic Learners

Kinesthetic learners are “tactile” learners, meaning they prefer to physically act out events or use all of
their senses while learning. These types of learners are easy to find, as they likely have a difficult time
sitting still and might need frequent breaks during heavy studying periods. 

How to Teach This Type of Learning Style: Kinesthetic Learners

When possible, get kinesthetic learners up and moving. If you’re teaching Shakespeare, for example,
have them act out a scene with a few of their kinesthetic-focused peers. You can also create learning
games that encourage these types of learners to move about the classroom at different points in the
lesson. 

Sphero and littleBits Activities Kinesthetic Learners Will Love

Sphero Long Jump

Sphero Long Jump is the perfect challenge for kinesthetic learners, as you can easily get your students
up and moving. During this activity, have your students learn about what the long jump is and how
science can be used to maximize jumping distance. With supervision, students could even try their own
long jump in a safe area and measure their distance! Afterward, with just a few craft supplies, they can
create an adjustable, homemade ramp and DIY long jump pit for their Sphero. 

Animal Imitation

With this hands-on activity, your kinesthetic learners can become ethologists and technologists at the
same time. To start, your students will study the movements of their favorite animal (including how
the animal sees, smells, and interacts with other animals) and program RVR to mimic how it navigates
in the wild. Plus, your students will be able to utilize littleBits inventions to mimic this animal’s behavior.
To go one step further, your class could even act out their chosen animal’s behaviors!

Implement the Right Learning Style for Your Remote

Students
If you have a student that’s struggling, uncovering their unique learning style could help you get them
back on track. Whether they are a visual, auditory, reading and writing, or kinesthetic learner, you can
implement a plethora of activities in your curriculum that facilitate subject matter retention, course
engagement, and an enjoyable educational experience. 
To learn more about how to programmable robots and STEM kits appeal to all learning styles, and for
more information on how to integrate Sphero and littleBits in the classroom, check out our getting
started resources page for educators.

Topic 2 :B
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
By 
Kendra Cherry 
Updated on October 19, 2022
 Medically reviewed by 
David Susman, PhD
The concept of multiple intelligences is a theory proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner.
When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of IQ testing may immediately come to mind.
Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with, something that
can be measured, and a capacity that is difficult to change.
In recent years, however, other views of intelligence have emerged, including Gardner's suggestion that
multiple different types of intelligence may exist.
Illustration by JR Bee, Verywell
 What Kind of Intelligence Do You Have?
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner first
outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences , where he
suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences."
Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth
known as "existentialist intelligence."1
In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that
people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical,
interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences.

While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, he or she
most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in verbal, musical,
and naturalistic intelligence.

Criticism

Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics argue
that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different "intelligences" simply
represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting
empirical research.

Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators. Many
teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophies and work to integrate Gardner’s
theory into the classroom.2
Gardner has cautioned that multiple intelligences should not be conflated with learning styles.3 (It is
also important to stress that evidence has found that matching instruction to a learner's perceived style
has no benefits in terms of learning outcomes or educational attainment.) 4

There is a lack of evidence to demonstrate that learning according to your "intelligence" produces
better educational outcomes. However, you may find that learning more about multiple intelligences
can give you a better understanding of your strengths and preferences.

1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence
People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are
often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures. 5
Strengths: Visual and spatial judgment
Characteristics

People with visual-spatial intelligence:

  Read and write for enjoyment
 Are good at putting puzzles together
 Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well
 Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts
 Recognize patterns easily

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are: 

 Architect
 Artist
 Engineer

2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and
speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and
reading.1
Strengths: Words, language, and writing
Characteristics- People with linguistic-verbal intelligence:

 Remember written and spoken information

 Enjoy reading and writing
 Debate or give persuasive speeches
 Are able to explain things well
 Use humor when telling stories

Potential Career Choices-If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you
are:

 Writer/journalist
 Lawyer
 Teacher

3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns,
and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers,
relationships, and patterns.6
Strengths: Analyzing problems and mathematical operations
Characteristics - People with logical-mathematical intelligence:

 Have excellent problem-solving skills

 Enjoy thinking about abstract ideas
 Like conducting scientific experiments
  Can solve complex computations

Potential Career Choices-If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices
for you are:

 Scientist
 Mathematician
 Computer programmer
 Engineer
 Accountant

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing
actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye
coordination and dexterity.6
Strengths: Physical movement, motor control
Characteristics-People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:

 Are skilled at dancing and sports

 Enjoy creating things with his or her hands
 Have excellent physical coordination
 Remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

Potential Career Choices- If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for
you are:

 Craftsperson
 Dancer
 Builder
 Surgeon
 Sculptor
 Actor

5. Musical Intelligence
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds.
They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and
performance.7
Strengths: Rhythm and music
Characteristics-People with musical intelligence:

 Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments

 Recognize musical patterns and tones easily
 Remember songs and melodies
 Have a rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes
Potential Career Choices- If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

 Musician
 Composer
 Singer
 Music teacher
 Conductor

6. Interpersonal Intelligence
Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other
people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of
those around them.7
Strengths: Understanding and relating to other people
Characteristics-People with interpersonal intelligence:

 Communicate well verbally

 Are skilled at nonverbal communication
 See situations from different perspectives
 Create positive relationships with others
 Resolve conflicts in group settings

Potential Career Choices: If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you
are:

 Psychologist
 Philosopher
 Counselor
 Salesperson
 Politician

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional
states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including
daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths. 7
Strengths: Introspection and self-reflection
Characteristics: People with intrapersonal intelligence:

 Analyze their strengths and weaknesses well

 Enjoy analyzing theories and ideas
 Have excellent self-awareness
 Understand the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings
Potential Career Choices: If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you
are:

 Philosopher
 Writer
 Theorist
 Scientist

8. Naturalistic Intelligence
Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than
his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of
intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the
environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even
subtle changes to their environments.1
Strengths: Finding patterns and relationships to nature
Characteristics- People with naturalistic intelligence:

 Are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology

 Categorize and catalog information easily
 Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
 Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

Potential Career Choices; If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you
are:

 Biologist
 Conservationist
 Gardener
 Farmer

 Theories of Intelligence in Psychology

9. Existential Intelligence

Existential intelligence is the ninth type of intelligence suggested as an addition to Gardner's original
theory. He described existential intelligence as an ability to delve into deeper questions about life and
existence. People with this type of intelligence contemplate the "big" questions about topics such as the
meaning of life and how actions can serve larger goals.

Strengths; An ability to see the big picture

Characteristics-People with existential intelligence:

 Have a long-term outlook

 Consider how current actions influence future outcomes
 Interest in questions about the meaning of life and death
  Strong interest and concern for others
 The ability to see situations from an outside perspective

Potential Career Choices- If you have a strong sense of existential intelligence, you might enjoy a
career as a:

 Philosopher
 Theologian
 Pastoral counselor
 Pastor

A Word From Verywell

The theory of multiple intelligences is important because it allows us to think about different types of
mental strengths and abilities. Learning more about which types of intelligence you lean towards may
help you learn to recognize your own preferences. However, it shouldn't be used as a tool to label and
should not be confused with learning styles.

Instead of trying to match what you learn to your perceived type of intelligence, focus on learning new
things via various modalities and formats to strengthen encoding and reinforce learning.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

 How do you tell if your child is a kinesthetic learner?
Your child may have high bodily kinesthetic intelligence if they prefer hands on experiences,
struggle sitting still and listening for long periods of time, and/or remember information best
when they're able to participate in an activity. They may also prefer working alone instead of
working in a group.8
 How can I increase my bodily kinesthetic intelligence?
To tap into your bodily kinesthetic intelligence, try performing activities that require using both
your body and mind, such as taking a dance class, learning an instrument, or drawing. 9
By Kendra Cherry
Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about
psychology.

TOPIC 3 : UNDERSTANDING CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITY

December 9, 2015 by Alison Morse

What is an Exceptional Student?

A student is identified as exceptional through the Identification, Placement and Review

Committee (IPRC) process. The IPRC process is prescribed by law, under Regulation
181/98 (Regulation 181 – Education Act) of the Education Act. The IPRC is a formal process
used by school boards to decide whether the student is exceptional and in need of special
education programs and services. The committee, consisting of the principal (or designate)
and two staff from the school board, meets to decide whether a student is exceptional and to
determine the placement that will best meet the student’s needs. The committee uses
information from observations, test results and assessments to determine whether the
student meets the criteria to be identified as exceptional. The IPRC then decides if the
student is exceptional and which category of exceptionality best describes the student’s
needs.

What are the Categories of Exceptionality?

The Ministry of Education has defined five categories of exceptionality and 10 sub-
categories. The exceptionality categories are:

Behaviour

Communication

o Autism Spectrum Disorder

o Deaf and Hard of Hearing
o Language Impairment
o Learning Disability
o Speech Impairment

Intellectual

o Giftedness
o Mild Intellectual Disability
o Developmental Disability

Physical

o Physical Disability
o Blind or Low Vision

Multiple Exceptionality

o Meets the criteria of more than one of the above

Where Can I Find the Definitions of the Categories Of Exceptionality?

There are two components to the definitions of the exceptionality. The first is the definitions provided by
the Ministry of Education and the second is the more detailed criteria used by each school board. The
Ministry definitions are fairly broad and the school boards have developed their own criteria to support
the process of identification. For example, the Ministry definition for Deaf or Hard of Hearing is:

o An impairment characterized by deficits in language and speech development because of

diminished or non-existent auditory response to sound.

And the one school board as developed the following criteria for identification:

o A permanent hearing loss, substantiated by an audiological assessment (within the

previous 12 months) by a registered Audiologist, which results in a need for
accommodations and/or modifications to the classroom environment and/or program.

From this example, the broad Ministry definition has been augmented with the criteria the school board
will use for identification of exceptionality.

The Ministry of Education provided definitions of each category of exceptionality in the Guide for
Educators 2002 and a copy of the definitions can be found on page A18 to A20. At the present time,
only one definition has been changed and that is the definition of Learning Disability, found in
Policy/Program 8 Learning Disabilities (2014)ppm8. Several other exceptionality definitions are currently
under review.

For the specific criteria used by your school board, check the school board website for the Categories of
Exceptionality which should be found in the school board Special Education Plan.

What is the link between a medical diagnosis and exceptionality?

The categories of exceptionality are based on student learning needs and not diagnosis. For example,
students with Autism Spectrum Disorders are identified under Communication category as their learning
needs are impacted by the disruption of their communication skills. Similarly, students with a
developmental disability are identified under Intellectual category as their learning needs are
significantly impacted by their cognitive skills.

The Ministry of Education has been clear that they believe that the categories of exceptionality are
inclusive of all diagnosis and disabilities because they focus on learning needs, in broad categories of
behaviour, communication, intellectual and physical. In November 2011, Barry Finlay, former Director of
the Special Education Policy and Programs Branch, Ministry of Education, provided clarification about
exceptionalities and diagnosis in a Memo to Directors of Education 2011CategoryException[1]. In the
memo he provided examples to reassure families that the exceptionalities are inclusive of all students
with special education needs. Barry Finlay said:
“All students with demonstrable learning based needs are entitled to appropriate accommodations in the
form of special education programs and services, including classroom based
accommodations. Inclusion of some medical conditions (e.g., autism) in the Guide’s definitions of the
five categories of exceptionalities is not intended to exclude any other medical condition that may result
in learning difficulties, such as (but not limited to) Attention Deficit Disorder/Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD/ADHD), Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Tourette Syndrome, Myalgic
Encephalomyelitis, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, and Fibromyalgia Syndrome. The determining factor for
the provision of special education programs or services is not any specific diagnosed or undiagnosed
medical condition, but rather the needs of individual students based on the individual assessment of
strengths and needs.”

Who decides if a student is exceptional?

The Identification, Placement and Review Committee (IPRC) determines whether a student
is or is not exceptional, according to the categories of exceptionality, defined by the Ministry
of Education, and the criteria for identification used by the school board. In deciding whether
a student is exceptional, the committee will:

o Consider an educational assessment;

o Interview the parent(s)/legal guardian(s) unless waived or refused;
o Interview the student where practical and permitted by the parent(s)/legal guardian(s);
o The parent(s)/legal guardian(s) has the right to be present during the interview;
o Obtain and consider a health assessment and/or achievement assessment and/or a
psychological assessment if required by the IPRC and with permission of the
parent(s)/legal guardian(s);
o Examine the description of the student’s strengths and needs.

What is the exceptionality if the student has multiple needs?

Many students have multiple needs and may meet the criteria for identification under more than one
category of exceptionality and school boards have varying practices. In most school boards the IPRC
will look at all of the needs and determine which have the most significant impact on learning. For
example, a student with cerebral palsy may have significant physical disabilities as well as a
developmental disability. The IPRC may determine that the category Intellectual: Developmental
Disability is the exceptionality recognizing that the student’s intellectual needs have the greatest impact
on learning. However, if the IPRC decides that both the physical and developmental disability are
impacting learning they may identify the students under Multiple Exceptionality.

There are variations in the practices of different school boards and in some there may be a dual
exceptionality or a main and secondary exceptionality. For more information, on the practices used by
your school board, check the school board Special Education Plan or ask the school staff.

Will the student’s exceptionality change?

The Identification, Placement and Review Committee must meet at least once per year to
review the student’s identification and placement. As the needs of a student who has been
identified as exceptional are significant and likely to be long lasting, in most cases the
category of exceptionality will remain the same throughout the student’s school career.
However, at each annual review, new information or updated assessments may be
presented that requires consideration about the exceptionality. For example, a young
student may be identified as exceptional, Physical Disability but as they mature it may
become clear that they are intellectually gifted. The exceptionality may change to
Intellectual: Giftedness. This is one of the reasons that parents should participate in every
annual IPRC review. For more information on the parent role check the article, Should I
attend the Annual IPRC?

Determining if a student is exceptional is only one of the roles of the IPRC. In a future article information
will be provided on the placement decision by the IPRC.

Filed Under: Identification, Placement and Review Committee (IPRC)

TOPIC 4 : BEHAVIORISM : PAVLOV, THORNDIKE ,SKINNER,

WATSON by BEKKI BRAU, NATHAN FOX, & ELIZABETH ROBINSON
Behaviorism is an area of psychological study that focuses on observing and analyzing how
controlled environmental changes affect behavior. The goal of behavioristic teaching
methods is to manipulate the environment of a subject — a human or an animal — in an
effort to change the subject’s observable behavior. From a behaviorist perspective, learning
is defined entirely by this change in the subject’s observable behavior. The role of the subject
in the learning process is to be acted upon by the environment; the subject forms
associations between stimuli and changes behavior based on those associations. The role of
the teacher is to manipulate the environment in an effort to encourage the desired
behavioral changes.  The principles of behaviorism were not formed overnight but evolved
over time from the work of multiple psychologists. As psychologists’ understanding of
learning has evolved over time, some principles of behaviorism have been discarded or
replaced, while others continue to be accepted and practiced.

HISTORY OF BEHAVIORISM

A basic understanding of behaviorism can be gained by examining the history of four of the
most influential psychologists who contributed to the behaviorism: Ivan Pavlov, Edward
Thorndike, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. These four did not each develop principles of
behaviorism in isolation, but rather built upon each other’s work.

IVAN PAVLOV

Ivan Pavlov is perhaps most well-known for his work in conditioning dogs to salivate at the
sound of a tone after pairing food with the sound over time. Pavlov’s research is regarded as
the first to explore the theory of classical conditioning: that stimuli cause responses and that
the brain can associate stimuli together to learn new responses. His research also studied
how certain parameters — such as the time between two stimuli being presented — affected
these associations in the brain. His exploration of the stimulus-response model, the
associations formed in the brain, and the effects of certain parameters on developing new
behaviors became a foundation of future experiments in the study of human and animal
behavior (Hauser, 1997).

In his most famous experiment, Pavlov started out studying how much saliva different
breeds of dogs produced for digestion. However, he soon noticed that the dogs would start
salivating even before the food was provided. Subsequently he realized that the dogs
associated the sound of him walking down the stairs with the arrival of food. He went on to
test this theory by playing a tone when feeding the dogs, and over time the dogs learned to
salivate at the sound of a tone even if there was no food present. The dogs learned a new
response to a familiar stimulus via stimulus association. Pavlov called this learned response
a conditional reflex. Pavlov performed several variations of this experiment, looking at how
far apart he could play the tone before the dogs no longer associated the sound with food; or
if applying randomization — playing the tone sometimes when feeding the dogs but not
others — had any effect on the end results (Pavlov, 1927).

Pavlov’s work with conditional reflexes was extremely influential in the field of behaviorism.
His experiments demonstrate three major tenets of the field of behaviorism:

1. Behavior is learned from the environment. The dogs learned to salivate at the sound of
a tone after their environment presented the tone along with food multiple times.
2. Behavior must be observable. Pavlov concluded that learning was taking place because
he observed the dogs salivating in response to the sound of a tone.
3. All behaviors are a product of the formula stimulus-response. The sound of a tone
caused no response until it was associated with the presentation of food, to which the
dogs naturally responded with increased saliva production.

These principles formed a foundation of behaviorism on which future scientists would build.
 EDWARD THORNDIKE

Edward Lee Thorndike is regarded as the first to study operant conditioning, or learning
from consequences of behaviors. He demonstrated this principle by studying how long it
took different animals to push a lever in order to receive food as a reward for solving a
puzzle. He also pioneered the law of effect, which presents a theory about how behavior is
learned and reinforced.

Oneexperiment Thorndike conducted was called the puzzle box experiment, which is similar
to the classic “rat in the maze” experiment. For this experiment, Thorndike placed a cat in a
box with a piece of food on the outside of the box and timed how long it took the cat to push
the lever to open the box and to get the food. The first two or three times each cat was placed
in the box there was little difference in how long it took to open the box, but subsequent
experiments showed a marked decrease in time as each cat learned that the same lever
would consistently open the box.

A second major contribution Thorndike made to the field is his work in pioneering the law of
effect. This law states that behavior followed by positive results is likely to be repeated and
that any behavior with negative results will slowly cease over time. Thorndike’s puzzle box
experiments supported this belief: animals were conditioned to frequently perform tasks
that led to rewards.

Thorndike’s two major theories are the basis for much of the field of behaviorism and
psychology studies of animals to this day. His results that animals can learn to press levers
and buttons to receive food underpin many different types of animal studies exploring other
behaviors and created the modern framework for the assumed similarities between animal
responses and human responses (Engelhart, 1970).

In addition to his work with animals, Thorndike founded the field of educational psychology
and wrote one of the first books on the subject, Educational Psychology, in 1903. Much of his
later career was spent overhauling the field of teaching by applying his ideas about the law of
effect and challenging former theories on generalized learning and punishment in the
classroom. His theories and work have been taught in teaching colleges across the world.

JOHN B. WATSON

John Broadus Watson was a pioneering psychologist who is generally considered to be the
first to combine the multiple facets of the field under the umbrella of behaviorism. The
foundation of Watson’s behaviorism is that consciousness — introspective thoughts and
feelings — can neither be observed nor controlled via scientific methods and therefore
should be ignored when analyzing behavior. He asserted that psychology should be purely
objective, focusing solely on predicting and controlling observable behavior, thus removing
any interpretation of conscious experience. Thus, according to Watson, learning is a change
in observable behavior. In his 1913 article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”, Watson
defined behaviorism as “a purely objective experimental branch of natural science” that
“recognizes no dividing line between man and brute.” The sole focus of Watson’s
behaviorism is observing and predicting how subjects outwardly respond to external stimuli.

John Watson is remembered as the first psychologist to use human test subjects in
experiments on classical conditioning. He is famous for the Little Albert experiment, in
which he applied Pavlov’s ideas of classical conditioning to teach an infant to be afraid of a
rat. Prior to the experiment, the nine-month-old infant Albert was exposed to several
unfamiliar stimuli: a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, masks with and without hair,
cotton wool, burning newspapers, etc. He showed no fear in response. Through some further
experimentation, researchers discovered that Albert responded with fear when they struck a
steel bar with a hammer to produce a shap noise.

During the experiment, Albert was presented with the white rat that had previously
produced no fear response. Whenever Albert touched the rat, the steel bar was struck, and
Albert fell forward and began to whimper. Albert learned to become hesitant around the rat
and was afraid to touch it. Eventually, the sight of the rat caused Albert to whimper and
crawl away. Watson concluded that Albert had learned to be afraid of the rat (Watson &
Rayner, 1920).

By today’s standards, the Little Albert experiment is considered both unethical and
scientifically inconclusive. Critics have said that the experiment “reveals little evidence either
that Albert developed a rat phobia or even that animals consistently evoked his fear (or
anxiety) during Watson’s experiment” (Harris, 1997). However, the experiment provides
insight into Watson’s definition of behaviorism — he taught Albert by controlling Albert’s
environment, and the change in Albert’s behavior led researchers to conclude that learning
had occurred.

B. F. SKINNER

Skinner was a psychologist who continued to influence the development of behaviorism. His
most important contributions were introducing the idea of radical behaviorism and defining
operant conditioning.

Unlike Watson, Skinner believed that internal processes such as thoughts and emotions
should be considered when analyzing behavior. The inclusion of thoughts and actions with
behaviors is radical behaviorism. He believed that internal processes, like observable
behavior, can be controlled by environmental variables and thus can be analyzed
scientifically. The application of the principles of radical behaviorism is known as applied
behavior analysis.
In 1938, Skinner published The Behavior of Organisms, a book that introduces the principles
of operant conditioning and their application to human and animal behavior. The core
concept of operant conditioning is the relationship between reinforcement and punishment,
similar to Thorndike’s law of effect: Rewarded behaviors are more likely to be repeated,
while punished behaviors are less likely to be repeated. Skinner expounded on Thorndike’s
law of effect by breaking down reinforcement and punishment into five discrete categories
(cf. Fig. 1):

 Positive reinforcement is adding a positive stimulus to encourage behavior.

 Escape is removing a negative stimulus to encourage behavior.
 Active avoidance is preventing a negative stimulus to encourage behavior.
 Positive punishment is adding a negative stimulus to discourage behavior.
 Negative punishment is removing a positive stimulus to discourage behavior.

Reinforcement encourages behavior, while punishment discourages behavior. Those who use
operant conditioning use reinforcement and punishment in an effort to modify the subject’s
behavior.

Figure 1. An overview of the five categories of operant conditioning.

Positive and negative reinforcements can be given according to different types of schedules.
Skinner developed five schedules of reinforcement:

 Continuous reinforcement is applied when the learner receives reinforcement after

every specific action performed. For example, a teacher may reward a student with
a sticker for each meaningful comment the student makes.
  Fixed interval reinforcement is applied when the learner receives reinforcement
after a fixed amount of time has passed. For example, a teacher may give out
stickers each Friday to students who made comments throughout the week.
 Variable interval reinforcement is applied when the learner receives reinforcement
after a random amount of time has passed. For example, a teacher may give out
stickers on a random day each week to students who have actively participated in
classroom discussion.
 Fixed ratio reinforcement is applied when the learner receives reinforcement after
the behavior occurs a set number of times. For example, a teacher may reward a
student with a sticker after the student contributes five meaningful comments.
 Variable ratio reinforcement is applied when the learner receives reinforcement
after the behavior occurs a random number of times. For example, a teacher may
reward a student with a sticker after the student contributes three to ten
meaningful comments.

Skinner experimented using different reinforcement schedules in order to analyze which

schedules were most effective in various situations. In general, he found that ratio schedules
are more resistant to extinction than interval schedules, and variable schedules are more
resistant than fixed schedules, making the variable ratio reinforcement schedule the most
effective.

Skinner was a strong supporter of education and influenced various principles on the
manners of educating. He believed there were two reasons for education: to teach both
verbal and nonverbal behavior and to interest students in continually acquiring more
knowledge. Based on his concept of reinforcement, Skinner taught that students learn best
when taught by positive reinforcement and that students should be engaged in the process,
not simply passive listeners. He hypothesized that students who are taught via punishment
learn only how to avoid punishment. Although Skinner’s doubtful view on punishment is
important to the discipline in education, finding other ways to discipline are very difficult, so
punishment is still a big part in the education system.

Skinner points out that teachers need to be better educated in teaching and learning
strategies (Skinner, 1968). He addresses the main reasons why learning is not successful.
This biggest reasons teachers fail to educate their students are because they are only
teaching through showing and they are not reinforcing their students enough. Skinner gave
examples of steps teachers should take to teach properly.  A few of these steps include the
following:

1. Ensure the learner clearly understands the action or performance.

2. Separate the task into small steps starting at simple and working up to complex.
3. Let the learner perform each step, reinforcing correct actions.
 4. Regulate so that the learner is always successful until finally the goal is reached.
5. Change to random reinforcement to maintain the learner’s performance (Skinner,
1968).

CRITICISM AND LIMITATIONS

While there are elements of behaviorism that are still accepted and practiced, there are
criticisms and limitations of behaviorism. Principles of behaviorism can help us to
understand how humans are affected by associated stimuli, rewards, and punishments, but
behaviorism may oversimplify the complexity of human learning. Behaviorism assumes
humans are like animals, ignores the internal cognitive processes that underlie behavior, and
focuses solely on changes in observable behavior.

From a behaviorist perspective, the role of the learner is to be acted upon by the teacher-
controlled environment. The teacher’s role is to manipulate the environment to shape
behavior. Thus, the student is not an agent in the learning process, but rather an animal that
instinctively reacts to the environment. The teacher provides input (stimuli) and expects
predictable output (the desired change in behavior). More recent learning theories, such as
constructivism, focus much more on the role of the student in actively constructing
knowledge.

Behaviorism also ignores internal cognitive processes, such as thoughts and feelings.
Skinner’s radical behaviorism takes some of these processes into account insofar as they can
be measured but does not really try to understand or explain the depth of human emotion.
Without the desire to understand the reason behind the behavior, the behavior is not
understood in a deeper context and reduces learning to the stimulus-response model. The
behavior is observed, but the underlying cognitive processes that cause the behavior are not
understood. The thoughts, emotions, conscious state, social interactions, prior knowledge,
past experiences, and moral code of the student are not taken into account. In reality, these
elements are all variables that need to be accounted for if human behavior is to be predicted
and understood accurately. Newer learning theories, such as cognitivism, focus more on the
roles of emotion, social interaction, prior knowledge, and personal experience in the learning
process.

Another limitation to behaviorism is that learning is only defined as a change in observable

behavior. Behaviorism operates on the premise that knowledge is only valuable if it results in
modified behavior. Many believe that the purpose of learning and education is much more
than teaching everyone to conform to a specific set of behaviors. For instance, Foshay (1991)
argues that “the one continuing purpose of education, since ancient times, has been to bring
people to as full as realization as possible of what it is to be a human being” (p. 277).
Behaviorism’s focus on behavior alone may not achieve the purpose of education, because
humans are more than just their behavior.
 CONCLUSION

Behaviorism is a study of how controlled changes to a subject’s environment affect the

subject’s observable behavior. Teachers control the environment and use a system of
rewards and punishments in an effort to encourage the desired behaviors in the subject.
Learners are acted upon by their environment, forming associations between stimuli and
changing behavior based on those associations.

There are principles of behaviorism that are still accepted and practiced today, such as the
use of rewards and punishments to shape behavior. However, behaviorism may oversimplify
the complexity of human learning; downplay the role of the student in the learning process;
disregard emotion, thoughts, and inner processes; and view humans as being as simple as
animals.

TOPIC 5: NEO-BEHAVIORISM : TOLMAN AND BANDURA

V. ASSESSMENT TASK/S
A. In your own words and in not
more than 5 sentences each, explain:
a) Tolman’s purposive behaviorism.
- Tolman’s purposive behaviorism,
also known as sign learning, is
learning by
acquiring meaningful behavior. His
proposed learning types such as
learning
are always purposive and goal-
directed, cognitive maps, latent
learning, and
concept intervening variables. All
depends upon the means and the
result of
the behavior. His theory believes that
individuals act according to their
beliefs
and goals. Thus, he concluded that
people would select the shortest and
easiest path to achieve their goals,
making the circumstances a
significant
factor that affects their behavior.
b) Bandura’s social learning theory.
- Albert Bandura’s social learning
theory suggests that an individual
through
observation and how modeling is a
primary factor in this process. The
framework of social learning theory is
made up of three main principles. The
first is the notion that people can learn
from observing others. The idea that
internal cognitive processes are an
essential part of this mechanism.
Eventually, this principle
acknowledges that because something
has been
established does not guarantee that it
will lead to a shift in behavior.
2. Give at least one teaching
application of each theory.
a. Tolman’s purposive behaviorism.
- Since Tolman’s purposive
behaviorism is about acquiring
meaningful behavior,
we have to administer a teaching
application that will affect the
learner’s self-
efficacy and goals. Incorporating
information that is most likely to
result in an
action that benefits their goals and
purpose in learning. Giving assistance
and
encouragement will make the learners
establish a clear goal that will
motivate
their learning.
b. Bandura’s social learning theory.
Bandura suggests that an individual
can learn through observation. With
this,
we provide them examples that they
can gain knowledge with. Having a
role
model to emulate will motivate the
learners as they see the result of such
actions. Having a good impact also
encourages them and improve their
behavior and increase positive factors
into their learning state.

VI. 5 MINUTE NON-STOP

WRITING
From the Module on
Neobehaviorism: Tolman and
Bandura, I realized that…
Every individual has different
capabilities and means of learning.
The most important
concept that all must remember is that
having results and improvement
motivates an
individual. With this, an individual
reenergizes the emotional and mental
state that allows
them to work and gives them the
confidence to demonstrate their
acquired knowledge and
skills. Thus, observation is also a
primary factor in making the student
more skilled as they
gain prior knowledge before into
action.
KEY CONCEPT OF
TOLMAN’S THEORY ON
PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
KEY CONCEPT OF
TOLMAN’S THEORY ON
PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
APPLICATION: TOLMAN’S
PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
State a personal message derived
from the key concepts of Tolman’s
purposive
behaviorism
APPLICATION: TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM State a personal message derived from the key
concepts of Tolman’s purposive behaviorism

ASSESSMENT TASK/S A. In your own words and in not more than 5 sentences each, explain:
a) Tolman’s purposive behaviorism. -
1. Tolman’s purposive behaviorism, also known as sign learning, is learning by acquiring
meaningful behavior.
2. His proposed learning types such as learning are always purposive and goal-directed,
cognitive maps, latent learning, and concept intervening variables.
3. All depends upon the means and the result of the behavior.
4. His theory believes that individuals act according to their beliefs and goals.
5. Thus, he concluded that people would select the shortest and easiest path to achieve their
goals, making the circumstances a significant factor that affects their behavior.

b) Bandura’s social learning theory. -

1. Albert Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that an individual through observation and
how modeling is a primary factor in this process.
2. The framework of social learning theory is made up of three main principles. The first is the
notion that people can learn from observing others. The idea that internal cognitive
processes are an essential part of this mechanism. Eventually, this principle acknowledges
that because something has been established does not guarantee that it will lead to a shift in
behavior.
Give at least one teaching application of each theory.

a. Tolman’s purposive behaviorism. -

1. Since Tolman’s purposive behaviorism is about acquiring meaningful
behavior, we have to administer a teaching application that will affect the
learner’s self-efficacy and goals.
2. Incorporating information that is most likely to result in an action that
benefits their goals and purpose in learning.
3. Giving assistance and encouragement will make the learners establish a clear
goal that will motivate their learning.
b. Bandura’s social learning theory.
 1. Bandura suggests that an individual can learn through observation. With this,
we provide them examples that they can gain knowledge with.
2. Having a role model to emulate will motivate the learners as they see the
result of such actions.
3. Having a good impact also encourages them and improve their behavior and
increase positive factors into their learning state.
5 MINUTE NON-STOP WRITING From the Module on

Neobehaviorism: Tolman and Bandura, I realized that… Every individual has different capabilities and means of
learning. The most important concept that all must remember is that having results and improvement motivates an
individual. With this, an individual reenergizes the emotional and mental state that allows them to work and gives
them the confidence to demonstrate their acquired knowledge and skills. Thus, observation is also a primary factor
in making the student more skilled as they gain prior knowledge before proceeding into action.

TOPIC 6 : GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

10 Real Life Examples Of Gestalt Principles

If you see two circles of the same size and colour which are placed next to each other, you
tend to perceive that they have a relationship with each other rather than just being two
different circles. It is how most people see elements as a whole or try to group them into
whole. Gestalt is a term used in psychology which expresses the idea that the whole of
something is more important and convenient to our understanding than the individual parts.

Gestalt theory is a hypothesis which states that people tend to organize visual elements into
groups or unified wholes when certain principles are applied. According to it, the whole is
different from the sum of its part.

Gestalt principles try to describe the ways by which the human mind interprets the visual
elements. There are three general rules of Gestalt principle.

a. Objects are perceived in the simplest form.

b. Humans naturally follow lines or curves.

c. The mind will attempt to fill in detail that isn’t there.

There are several principles under Gestalt Hypothesis:

Principle of Continuity
The Principle of Continuity states that whenever our eyes begin to follow something, they
will continue to travel in that direction until they encounter another object. The eyes create
momentum as they are compelled to move through one object and continue to another. Let’s
check the examples of Continuity.

1.  Logo designs

The logos of Amazon, Proquest, USA Network, and Coca Cola follow the continuation
principle of Gestalt. In the logo of Amazon, there is an arrow starting from A and ending at Z
which depicts that Amazon has everything from A to Z. Similarly, in the logo of the famous
soft-drink brand, Coca Cola, our eyes follow the “C” from Coca to Cola, beginning from the
“C” in the word Cola through L and A. These types of visual aids help our eyes to follow an
upcoming object.

2. Google Maps
Google Maps have become a necessity for an individual who has shifted to a new city or for
the ones who like to travel. Google Maps also follow the rule of continuity. When we set a
destination on the google map, it shows us the pathway from the starting point to the
destination. We follow that pathway to reach our destination.

Principle of Closure
Closure occurs when an element is incomplete or is not enclosed in space. It, subconsciously,
involves filling of the missing gaps or information. When enough of the shape is shown and
it is still incomplete, our minds tend to fill in the blanks and construct the whole of the
shape. Let’s see the relevant examples of the closure principle.

3. Incomplete Logos and Designs

We can find some unfilled gap in logos of WWF or EA sports. For instance, in the logo of
WWF, there is an image of a panda, and it has some missing spaces on its back and head. It
is probably where the white fur of the panda would be. However, we are well aware of the
shape and colour of the panda; and so, we automatically and subconsciously fill the missing
gaps.

4. Advertisements

The above image is an advertisement for lenses. In this ad, the advertiser has tried to
construct a smiley with the help of objects and sentences, and we perceive the smiley as a
happy face as the advertisers would have apprehended. Though there is not an entire image
on a smiley emoji, we perceive the missing details and imagine it to be a happy face. It is a
technique used by advertisers to attract people.
 Principle of Similarity
Principle of similarity states that we tend to perceive things that physically resemble each
other as a part of the same object. There may be a similarity in any one of them; colour,
shape, texture, or any other element. Let’s see the examples of the principle of similarity.

5. Logo Designs

In the logos of NBC, Panda Security Touts, and Sun Microsystems, objects and patterns have
similar visual characteristics, though they are not identical in colour, shape, or size. In the
logo of Panda Security Touts, logomark is perfectly linked with the wordmark. Similarly, in
the logo for NBC, all the leaves are of different colours but are perceived as similar and in the
group because of their same shape.

Principle of Proximity
Principle of proximity states that when two or more elements are close to each other, the
position of these elements portray the relationship between separate parts and render a
specific meaning to that group. Let’s see the examples of the proximity principle.

6. Dots/Puzzle Buzz

In the above image, dots on the left appear to be the part of one group, whereas the ones on
the right seem to be in three different groups.
7. IBM Logo

When we look at the IBM logo, we see three letters composed of short horizontal lines
stacked above each other instead of the eight horizontal lines interspersed with uniform
gaps.

Principle of Pragnanz
The word “Pragnanz” is a German term meaning “good figure.” The Law of Pragnanz is also
referred to as the “law of good figure” or “the law of simplicity.” This principle states that
humans naturally perceive objects in the simplest form.

8. Olympic Logo

The Olympic logo has five circles. We tend to see this logo straightforwardly. The logo is
perceived to consist of five circles which are juxtaposing each other. The logo is less likely to
be apprehended as an assortment of curves, shapes, colours, and lines.

Principle of Figure To ground

The human eye can differentiate an object from the surrounding. We perceive certain objects
as being in the foreground and other objects as being in the background. Let’s check the
examples of this principle.

9. Multistability Images
The above logo for “Hope for African Children Initiative” simultaneously depicts the map of
Africa and the waning silhouettes of an adult and a child.

10. Face and Vases Illustration

In this image, we see faces and vases which depend on our way of perception. If we see the
white as the figure, then we perceive men and vice-versa.

TOIPC 7 : INFORMATION PROCESSING

What Is Information Processing?

When you look at your computer, do you think of your brain? It might sound like a strange idea, but it's pretty
much the connection psychologists have drawn in the development of the information processing theory. With
the momentum of technology in the past few decades, there have been comparisons made between the way a
computer operates and the way our mind does. Just as a computer receives, stores and brings up information, so do
our minds as we live day by day. As the theory outlines, there are four steps in processing and handling events
from our surroundings: attending, encoding, storing and retrieving.

Stages of Information Processing

Let's follow Jessica's story in order to watch the process unfold. Jessica is 16 years old. She goes to visit her
grandmother today, and they talk once again about her goals to become a doctor. Her face lights up as her
grandmother tells her she is going to be a wonderful doctor and help so many people. She says, 'Remember,
Jessica, you can do anything you want if you keep believing in yourself.'
Years go by, and Jessica never forgets her grandmother's words of encouragement. When she is a senior in
college, she becomes very discouraged by her difficult classes and worries about getting into med school. But
every time she wonders if she can achieve her goal, she reminds herself of her grandmother's words. In fact, she
will remember those words even once she becomes a doctor. Jessica went through all the stages of information
processing in her time with her grandmother and thereafter.
The first stage she went through was attending. In this stage, she was listening and paying close attention to her
grandmother's words that she could do whatever she wanted if she believed in herself. When we attend or focus on
an event or a conversation, we are preparing ourselves to receive it.
The second stage Jessica went through was encoding. This is what happened when she was taking in her
grandmother's words. If she was neither paying attention to them nor placing any importance on them, she would
not have encoded them.
The third stage was storing. In this stage, her grandmother's words were entering her memory bank, ready to be
called upon at some other time.
The final stage was retrieving. This happened when Jessica went through a tough time in college and looked back
on her grandmother's words, bringing them up to her conscious awareness. She retrieved this information in order
to use it.

Three Stages of Memory

A huge part of information processing is its description of memory. The theory lists three stages of our memory
that work together in this order: sensory memory, short-term or working memory and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory
This initial stage involves our senses picking up on features from our environment. It occurs only for a few
seconds before it is brought into our memory. For example, Jessica probably smelled the apple pie her
grandmother was baking in the oven while they were having their conversation. If this was a common occurrence
when she was at her grandmother's house, the sensory memory would be stored, and every time she smelled baked
apple pie, she would feel like she was back there again.

Short-Term Memory
This second stage is the first stop for incoming information. It holds only a certain amount of information for a
brief amount of time, unless there is further processing into long-term memory. It is also referred to as
one's working memory, as it serves any number of functions like remembering phone numbers, plans for the day,
etc. Jessica made plans earlier in the week to meet with her grandmother and didn't use a planner, but the date and
time remained in her short-term memory.

Long-Term Memory
In this stage, the information we've received becomes implanted in our minds. There is no limit to the amount and
types of information we can retain in this storehouse. We are not aware of every memory we have stored, but they
are still there, simply not triggered. Jessica may not spend any time thinking of her grandmother's words during
her career as a doctor. Until that is, the memory is triggered by, let's say, people telling her they won't be able to do
this or that with their future.
Topic 8 : GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING (1985)
 16691 views |  Veronica |  01-01-2021

Robert Gagne describes conditions of learning as a means through which individuals and groups acquire
relevant skills to be accepted in society. Learning is a direct result of human behaviour which is
influenced by the environment and the individual thinking process of learners.

The foundations of Gagne’s Condition of learning lie in the theories of behaviourism. He also mentioned
that learning a specific skill depends on previous learning skills in a logical and sequential manner that
contributes to building a learning experience. 

It is important to group learning goals according to their learning outcomes. Learning outcomes are

dependent on planning what is meant to be learned and what is required at the end of the learning
session. Gagne proposed a series of critical conditions of learning which he then regarded as important in
the learning of different outcomes. These outcomes are distinct in terms of internal organisation in long-
term memory and required mental processing:

 Verbal information includes declarative knowledge that is stored in distributed forms. It should be related
to previous information that draws attention to other features by including variations in speech or print,
and provides meaningful content for effective encoding and cues for effective recall and generalisation. 

 Intellectual skills include procedural knowledge such as steps of a process or hierarchies with higher and
lower order skills. There is a need for prior knowledge here, it calls attention to distinctive features and
stimulates the recall of previously learned components' skills.

 Cognitive strategies are skills that influence the skills and activation of other systems by breaking the
problem into parts. It uses less prior knowledge and more practical examples and experiences backed by
feedback on the strategy or outcome.

 Motor skills deal with skills where error-less performance is expected. It encourages mental practice. Prior
learning of the process and practice enhances the overall process. 

 Attitudes are mental states that influence an individual’s actions and require a human to observe and learn
from those who also provide feedback.
Apart from these special conditions of learning, there are nine levels of instruction that are used as a
starting point for all types of learning and instructional design. These points help educators and trainers
to maintain a checklist for all their teaching or training activities. Each step highlights a form of
communication and when one step is completed, learners tend to retain and apply the skills taught in a
better and effective way. 

THESE NINE LEVELS ARE

Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception)

Start the learning process by gaining the attention of your audience. It starts the learning process when
the learner is being receptive to the information received. This may be achieved by calling names of
learners during the discussion to completely focus attention on learners. 

Level 2: Informing learners of the objective (Expectancy)

Next, learners must know what they are about to learn and why. At the start of the lecture, they should
be aware of what they will have learned by the end of the session, its benefit to them and the
organisation. 

For instance, explaining to learners why they will learn what they will learn and how to apply the concept
to your practice. This makes them more receptive to learning.

Level 3: Stimulating recall of prior learning (Retrieval) 

Matching the concept with what learners have learned previously. Prior experiences can be used to solve
new problems and resolve matters easily. This may also take the form of a simple Q/A session to
establish a link between specific material knowledge. 

Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception)

Presenting new information in an effective manner using more examples, use of timelines, diagrams,
concept maps and student discussions. Try using different media and styles such as visual cues and
verbal instructions to suit people with different learning styles. 

Level 5: Providing learning guidance (Semantic Encoding)

Helping your team learn and retain most of the information by providing alternative approaches to
illustrate the information you are trying to convey to the learner. Examples include; case studies and
graphics. Giving time for discussion and answering queries with relevant additional materials.

Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding)

Now is the time to see if learners can demonstrate their knowledge with what was taught to them. Give
them a brief test after each task/ unit to see if they can apply it to their learning before moving forward. 

Level 7: Providing feedback (Reinforcement)

After a clear demonstration of knowledge from the learners’ end, it's time to give feedback to them and
guide them on the points they missed. Your feedback and tips will help them improve. Discuss their
results, be professional with comments and give them guidelines to work on. This is a healthy exercise if
conducted properly. 

Level 8: Assessing performance (Retrieval)

When learners have had a good opportunity to practice and refine their learning it is time to assess their
learning with a test at the end of the course or any other measurement tool such as a case study or
seminar to show learners have learned the material or skill effectively. This test shall be completed
without any assistance or coaching.

Level 9: Enhancing retention and transfer (Generalization)

At this stage, learners show the transfer of knowledge through the application of skills and knowledge.
They should then be provided with real-life examples to apply the acquired knowledge. 

Gagne’s conditions of learning have its own pros and cons. People who have learning issues may respond
better to this regime that is clearly very systematic where learners are provided with resources and a
blueprint for learning. It can also be adjusted to suit their needs. However, it also requires a great deal of
assistance overall where critical thinking and instructions can’t be avoided. This practice may restrict
learners’ imagination and exploration instinct. But overall, these 9 steps are nine events of instruction,
systematically designed as foundation blocks of learning in modern classrooms. To understand more
about how to manage and maintain a classroom check out our Implementing Inclusive Practices in
Classroom CPD.

References

https://www.ukessays.com/courses/education/approaches/gagnes/lecture.php

https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/gagne.htm