ENGAGE

Activity 8.9.1 “Confusion”

To begin the lesson intended for you, there is a need to know first your ideas about Sociological Theories
of Crime Causation .The following items that you will see in your first activity will determine your
background about your knowledge on the Sociological Theories of Crime Causation. If you are ready, you
may start now. You only have 15 minutes to finish it.

Instruction: The following are the Sociological Theories of Crime Causation. You need to identify the
statements which you adhere that show factual information about the topic. You may check or X before
the statement/s of your choice.

1. The roots of strain theory can be traced to Emile Durkheim’s concept of anomie.
CHECK

2. In a conflict society, the rules of behavior have broken down by reason of rapid
social change or social crisis like war and famine.

3. Social Structure theories view that the disadvantaged economic condition of the
people is the primary cause of crime.

4. Social disorganization is a theory focuses on the conditions within the urban

environment that affect crime rates.

5. Chicago school views crime-ridden neighborhoods as those in which residents are

uninterested in community matters, therefore, the common sources of control – family,
school, church are weak and disorganized.
6. Chicago school focused on the functions of social institutions, such as the school and
the family, and how their breakdown influenced deviant and anti-social behavior.

7. Cultural Deviance Theory it Combines elements of both strain and social

disorganization theories.

8. Social Procedure theories these view that criminality is a function of people’s

interest with various organizations, institutions, and processes in the society.
9. Social Learning theory believes that crime is a product of learning the norms,
values and behaviors associated with criminal activity. CHECK
10. Differential reinforcement of crime is viewed under this concept that human
behavior is modeled through observation of human social interactions.

EXPLORE

Activity 8.9.2 Clarifications

Instruction: Here are some notions or beliefs about the Decide which are correct and which are not. Write
on the space provided if your answer is True or False. You have 10 minutes to finish it.

1. Cultural deviance theory it combines elements of both strain and social

disorganization theories.

2. Social process theories these view that criminality is a function of people’s interest
with various organizations, institutions, and processes in the society.

3. Social learning theory of crime is viewed under this concept that human behavior
is modeled through observation of human social interactions.

4. Beliefs favorable to crime are individuals may not only reinforce our crime, they
may also teach us beliefs favorable to crime.
5. Chicago school views crime-ridden neighborhoods as those in which residents
are uninterested in community matters, therefore, the common sources of control –
family, school, church are weak and disorganized.

6. Few animals including criminals generally approve of serious crimes like burglary
and robbery.

7. Differential Association Theory this theory, formulated by Sigmund Freud.

8. Neutralization Theory they viewed the process of becoming criminal as a learning
experience in which potential delinquents and criminals master techniques that
enable them to counterbalance or neutralize conventional behavior.

9. Social Reaction this theory, which is also called labeling theory, holds that people
enter into law-violating careers when they are labeled for their acts and the
individuals so labeled come to see themselves as criminals.

10. Mathematical theory was called statistical because it was the first attempt to
apply official data and statistics to the issue of explaining criminality.

EXPLAIN

This part of the module will give you now the ideas about Sociological Theories of Crime Causation.

Thus, it is necessary to spend a little of your time to understand the most common concepts being used
in the subject.

.
3. Sociological Theories of Crime Causation

3.1. Social Structure Theories – These theories view that the disadvantaged
economic condition of the people is the primary cause of crime.
3.1.1. Social Disorganization Theory. – This theory focuses on the
conditions within the urban environment that affect crime rates.
Under this proposition, crime rates are linked to neighborhood
ecological characteristics. It views crime-ridden neighborhoods as
those in which residents are uninterested in community matters,
therefore, the common sources of control – family, school, church –
are weak and disorganized. Sometimes, this is called differential
social organization. This theory was popularized by two Chicago
sociologists, Henry D. Mckay and Clifford R. Shaw. They contended
that criminals are not biologically inferior, intellectually impaired,
or psychologically damaged. To them, neighborhood denigration
and slum conditions are the primary causes of criminal behavior.
a) Chicago school. – The works of Shaw and Mckay was greatly
influenced by the researches on sociological positivism begun by
Robert Ezra Park (1864-1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886-1966), Louis
Wirth (1897-1952) of the Sociology Department of the University of
Chicago. Shaw and Mckay focused on the functions of social
institutions, such as the school and the family, and how their
breakdown influenced deviant and anti-social behavior.

b) Conflict Criminology. – In Europe, the writings of Karl Marx

(1818-1883) together with Friedrich Engels gained popularity
which pushed social interaction to a different direction. Marx
argued that the capitalist system would eventually result to a
class conflict between the capitalist bourgeoisie and the people
who do the actual labor, the proletariat. Although, Marx did not
develop a theory of crime, his writings were applied to
criminology by Willem Bonger, Ralf Dahrendorf, and George
Vold.
3.1.2. Strain Theory. – The roots of strain theory can be traced to Emile
Durkheim’s concept of anomie. To him, in an anomic society, the
rules of behavior have broken down by reason of rapid social
change or social crisis like war and famine. Meanwhile, although
Robert Merton adopted the concept of anomie, he deviated from
Durkheim’s rapid social change or social crisis as the cause of
anomie. Merton argues that crime is a function of the conflict
between the goals people have and the means they can use to
legally obtain them. Accordingly, the ability to obtain goals is class
dependent, which means that members of the lower class are
unable to achieve those goals which come easy to those belonging
to the upper class. The result of the lower class frustration, anger,
and resentment is referred to as strain.
 3.1.3. Cultural Deviance Theory. – Combines elements of both strain and
social disorganization theories. This argues that in order to cope
with social isolation and economic deprivation, members of the
lower class create an independent subculture with its own set of
rules and values. The sub-culture of the lower class is an attractive
alternative because they find it impossible to meet the behavioral
demands of the middle-class society. The idea that the lower class
develops a sub-culture by reason of strain can be traced to the work
of Thorsten Sellin, who, in 1938 published the book Culture Conflict
and Crime. Later, Walter Miller in his classic paper, “Lower Class
Culture as a General Milieu of Gang Delinquency,” discovered that
clinging to lower class value system promotes illegal or violent
behavior. In 1955, Albert Cohen in his book, “Delinquent Boys”
theorized that because social conditions make them incapable of
achieving success legitimately, lower class youths experience a
form of culture conflict which he called status frustration.

In the book, “The Subculture of Violence” published in 1967, Marvin E.

Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti presented an explanation on homicide and other
crimes of violence by drawing from Sutherland’s differential association theory. Their
treatise ranges from psychoanalytic theories of aggression, medical and biological
studies, the frustration-aggression hypothesis, containment theory, child-rearing
practices, and social learning and conditioning propositions.

4. Social Process Theories – These view that criminality is a function of people’s

interest with various organizations, institutions, and processes in the society.

4.1. Social Learning Theory. – This believes that crime is a product of learning the
norms, values and behaviors associated with criminal activity. It is viewed
under this concept that human behavior is modeled through observation of
human social interactions. Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904), the forerunner of
modern-day learning theories, conceptualized the theory of imitation, which
states that people learn from one another through the process of imitation.
Most of social learning theory involves a description of the three mechanisms
by which individuals learn to engage in crime from these others: differential
reinforcement, beliefs, and modeling.

 Differential reinforcement of crime

Individuals may teach others to engage in crime through the
reinforcements and punishments they provide for behavior. Crime is more
likely to occur when it (a) is frequently reinforced and infrequently punished;
(b) results in large amounts of reinforcement (e.g., a lot of money, social
approval, or pleasure) and little punishment; and (c) is more likely to be
reinforced than alternative behaviors.
 Reinforcements may be positive or negative. In positive reinforcement,
the behavior results in something good—some positive consequence. This
consequence may involve such things as money, the pleasurable feelings
associated with drug use, attention from parents, approval from friends, or an
increase in social status. In negative reinforcement, the behavior results in the
removal of something bad—a punisher is removed or avoided. For example,
suppose one's friends have been calling her a coward because she refuses to
use drugs with them. The individual eventually takes drugs with them, after
which time they stop calling her a coward. The individual's drug use has been
negatively reinforced.

According to social learning theory, some individuals are in

environments where crime is more likely to be reinforced (and less likely to be
punished). Sometimes this reinforcement is deliberate. For example, the
parents of aggressive children often deliberately encourage and reinforce
aggressive behavior outside the home. Or the adolescent's friends may
reinforce drug use. At other times, the reinforcement for crime is less
deliberate. For example, an embarrassed parent may give her screaming child
a candy bar in the checkout line of a supermarket. Without intending to do so,
the parent has just reinforced the child's aggressive behavior.

 Beliefs favorable to crime

Other individuals may not only reinforce our crime, they may also teach
us beliefs favorable to crime. Most individuals, of course, are taught that crime
is bad or wrong. They eventually accept or "internalize" this belief, and they
are less likely to engage in crime as a result. Some individuals, however, learn
beliefs that are favorable to crime and they are more likely to engage in crime
as a result.
Few people—including criminals—generally approve of serious crimes
like burglary and robbery. Surveys and interviews with criminals suggest that
beliefs favoring crime fall into three categories. And data suggest that each
type of belief increases the likelihood of crime.
First, some people generally approve of certain minor forms of crime,
like certain forms of consensual sexual behavior, gambling, "soft" drug use,
and—for adolescents—alcohol use, truancy, and curfew violation.
Second, some people conditionally approve of or justify certain forms of
crime, including some serious crimes. These people believe that crime is
generally wrong, but that some criminal acts are justifiable or even desirable
in certain conditions. Many people, for example, will state that fighting is
generally wrong, but that it is justified if you have been insulted or provoked in
some way. Gresham Sykes and David Matza have listed some of the more
common justifications used for crime. Several theorists have argued that certain
groups in our society—especially lower-class, young, minority males—are
more likely to define violence as an acceptable response to a wide range of
provocations and insults. And they claim that this "subculture of violence" is at
 least partly responsible for the higher rate of violence in these groups. Data in
this area are somewhat mixed, but recent studies suggest that males, young
people, and possibly lower-class people are more likely to hold beliefs
favorable to violence. There is less evidence for a relationship between race
and beliefs favorable to violence.
Third, some people hold certain general values that are conducive to
crime. These values do not explicitly approve of or justify crime, but they make
crime appear a more attractive alternative than would otherwise be the case.
Theorists such as Matza and Sykes have listed three general sets of values in
this area: an emphasis on "excitement," "thrills," or "kicks"; a disdain for hard
work and a desire for quick, easy success; and an emphasis on toughness or
being "macho." Such values can be realized through legitimate as well as
illegitimate channels, but individuals with such values will likely view crime in
a more favorable light than others.
 The imitation of criminal models

Behavior is not only a function of beliefs and the reinforcements and

punishments individuals receive, but also of the behavior of those around them.
In particular, individuals often imitate or model the behavior of others—
especially when they like or respect these others and have reason to believe
that imitating their behavior will result in reinforcement. For example,
individuals are more likely to imitate others' behavior if they observe them
receive reinforcement for their acts.

4.1.1. Differential Association Theory. – This theory, formulated by Edwin

Sutherland (1883-1950) believes that criminality is a function of a
learning process that could affect any individual in any culture.

Sutherland made the following outline:

 Criminal behavior is learned;

 criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of
communication;
 the principal part of learning of criminal behavior occurs within an intimate
personal group;
 when criminal behavior is learned, the learning process includes: techniques
of committing the crime which are sometime very simple, the specific direction of
motives, drives, rationalization and attitudes;
 the process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-
criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms;
 the process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-
criminal patterns involves all of the mechanism that are involved in any other
learning.
 4.1.2. Differential Reinforcement Theory. – This theory was proposed by
Ronald Akers with Robert Burgess in 1966. This variation of social
learning theory argues that the primary learning mechanism is
through differential association (instrumental conditioning) along
with elements of psychological learning theory. Akers said that
learning process, both for conforming and deviant behavior, is
through direct conditioning, which is also called differential
reinforcement. This occurs when behavior is reinforced by either
reward or punishment. When behavior is punished, this is referred
to as negative reinforcement. When a behavior is rewarded it is
called positive reinforcement.

4.1.3. Neutralization Theory. – As proposed in the writings of David Matza

and Gresham Sykes, they viewed the process of becoming criminal
as a learning experience in which potential delinquents and
criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or
neutralize conventional behavior. They held that offenders adhere
to conventional values while “drifting” into periods of illegal
behavior. Drift refers to the movement from one extreme behavior
to another, resulting in behavior that is sometimes unconventional,
free or deviant and at other times constrained and sober.
4.2. Social Control Theory. – It argues that people obey the law because
behavior and passions are being controlled by internal and external forces.
Conversely, some people have self-control, manifested through a strong moral
sense, which renders them incapable of hurting others and violating social norms.
People’s behavior, including criminal activity is controlled by their attachment and
commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and processes. Absent that
commitment, they are likely to engage in deviant behavior.

4.2.1. Under the concept of social control theory, Walter Reckless

postulated in his “Containment Theory” that a strong self-image
insulates the youth from the pressures and pulls of criminogenic
influences in the environment.
4.2.2. Social Bond Theory (also called social control theory). – In 1969,
Travis Hirschi presented in his book “Causes of Delinquency” the
social bond theory – linking the onset of criminality to the
weakening of ties that bind people in the society. He said that
people are kept under control because they fear that illegal
behavior will damage their relationship with friends, parents,
neighbors, teachers and employers.

4.3. Social Reaction Theory. – This theory, which is also called labeling
theory, holds that people enter into law-violating careers when they are labeled for
their acts and the individuals so labeled come to see themselves as criminals. This
concept was made popular by Howard Saul Becker (born on April 18, 1928) in
Chicago, Illinois. In 1963, Becker published the book, “Outsiders,” while teaching at
the Department of Psychiatry of University of Columbia, NY. Historically, intellectual
heritage of labeling is traceable to W.I. Thomas, G.H. Mead and Frank Tannenbaum.
Later, Edwin M. Lamert made a contribution on the subject as well.
Other Sociological Causes of Crime

 Lack of Parental Guidance – “Today’s delinquent is tomorrow’s Criminal”.

 Broken Homes and Family
 Injuring Status of Neighborhood – The residence is slum or impoverished areas
will lower the social status of the child. As a rule, people are influenced by these
surroundings and often get in trouble.
 Bad association with Criminal Groups – “One bad apple will spoil a barrel of
good ones”.
 Lack of Recreational Facilities for Proper use of Leisure Time – “An idle mind is
the devil’s workshop”.
 Lack of Employment

8. Ecological Theory – The ecological school of criminological theory is referred to

as Statistical, Geographic or Cartographic. This theory was called statistical because
it was the first attempt to apply official data and statistics to the issue of explaining
criminality. The labels geographical and cartographic have been assigned due to the
fact that writers in this group tended to rely upon maps and aerial data in their
investigation.

8.1. Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) – a Belgian mathematician, who, together

with Frenchman dre-Michel Guerry, established the cartographic school
of criminology. Quetelet was the first to take advantage of criminal
statistics in crime causation thus crediting him as the “Father of Modern
Sociological and Psychological Statistics.” Quetelet repudiated the free
will doctrine of the classicists and concluded that it is the society, not the
decisions of individual offenders that is responsible for criminal
behavior. He uncovered evidence that season, climate, population
composition, and poverty were related to criminality. Further, he said
that crime rates were greatest in summer, among the poor and
uneducated – and that crime rates are also influenced by drinking habits.
8.2. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) – one of the founding scholars of sociology,
he published the book entitled, “Division of Social Labor,” which
became a landmark work on the organization of societies. According to
him, crime is a normal part of society as birth and death. He held that the
existence of crime paves the way for social change and that a rising
crime rate can signal the need for social change and promote a variety
of programs designed to relieve the human suffering caused by crime.
 One of his profound contributions to contemporary criminology is the
concept of anomie – the breakdown of social order as a result of loss of
standard and values.

Activity 8.9.3 Netflix & CHILL

SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TqhF7RLnoKM

STRAIN THEORY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gUUS0pRPMZM

EVALUATION

Quiz 8.9.4

Instruction: Choose the word or phrase that will best complete/identify each of the following
statements. Select the letter of your answer. You have 30 minutes

1. This theory formulated by Edwin Sutherland believes that criminality is a function of a learning
process that could affect any individual in any culture.

a. Beliefs favorable to crime

b. Differential Association Theory

c. Differential reinforcement of crime

d. Social Learning Theory

2. This believes that crime is a product of learning the norms, values and behaviors associated with
criminal activity.

a. Beliefs favorable to crime

b. Differential Association Theory

c. Differential reinforcement of crime

d. Social Learning Theory

3. It is viewed under this concept that human behavior is modeled through observation of human social
interactions.

a. Beliefs favorable to crime

b. Differential Association Theory

c. Differential reinforcement of crime

d. Social Learning Theory

4. Other individuals may not only reinforce our crime, they may also teach us beliefs favorable to crime.

a. Beliefs favorable to crime

b. Differential Association Theory

c. Differential reinforcement of crime

d. Social Learning Theory

5. They eventually accept or "internalize" this belief, and they are less likely to engage in crime as a
result. Some individuals, however, learn beliefs that are favorable to crime and they are more likely to
engage in crime as a result.

a. Beliefs favorable to crime

b. Differential Association Theory

c. Differential reinforcement of crime

d. Social Learning Theory

6. This variation of social learning theory argues that the primary learning mechanism is through
differential association instrumental conditioning along with elements of psychological learning theory.

a. Beliefs favorable to crime

b. Differential Association Theory

c. Differential reinforcement of crime

d. Social Learning Theory

7. This theory viewed the process of becoming criminal as a learning experience in which potential
delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize
conventional behavior.

a. Neutralization Theory

b. Social Reaction Theory

c. Differential reinforcement of crime

d. Social Learning Theory

8. This theory, which is also called labeling theory, holds that people enter into law-violating careers
when they are labeled for their acts and the individuals so labeled come to see themselves as criminals.

a. Neutralization Theory

b. Social Reaction Theory

c. Differential reinforcement of crime

d. Social Learning Theory

9. A school of criminological theory is referred to as Statistical, Geographic or Cartographic. this theory

was called statistical because it was the first attempt to apply official data and statistics to the issue of
explaining criminality.

a. Neutralization Theory

b. Social Reaction Theory

c. Social Control Theory

d. Ecological Theory

10. It argues that people obey the law because behavior and passions are being controlled by internal
and external forces

a. Neutralization Theory

b. Social Reaction Theory

c. Social Control Theory

d. Ecological Theory