Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

AC Circuits

Chapter 13. Magnetically coupled circuits

13.1. Introduction
13.2. Mutual inductance
13.3. Energy in a coupled circuit
13.4. Linear transformers
13.5. Ideal transformers
13.6. Ideal autotransformers
13.7. Three-phase transformers
13.8. Applications of transformers
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.1. Introduction
+ Considered circuits:  regarded as conductively coupled: One loop affects the neighboring loop through
conduction current

+ Magnetically coupled: 2 loops with or without conductive contacts between them affect each other
through the magnetic field

+ Example: Transformer
 Use magnetically coupled coils to transfer energy from one circuit to another
 Use for stepping up/down AC voltages or currents
 Use as impedance matching, isolating one part of circuit from another
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.2. Mutual inductance

+ Mutual inductance phenomenon:
 When 2 inductors (or coils) are in close proximity to each other
 Magnetic flux caused by current in one coil links with the other coil: inducing voltage

+ Consider a single inductor (a coil with N turns):

 The current I flows through the coil, magnetic flux will be produced
around the coil
 According to Faraday’s law, we have:
d  di di
vN N L
dt i dt dt

LN (self-inductance of inductor)
i
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.2. Mutual inductance

+ Consider 2 coils L1, L2 are in close proximity with each other:
ϕ21(t)
ϕ11(t)
L1 L2
i1(t)

o No current in coil 2:
 Coil 1 has N1, coil 2 has N2 turn
ϕ11 – magnetic flux links only in coil 1
 Magnetic flux ϕ1 emanating from coil 1 has 2 components:
ϕ21 – magnetic flux links both coil 1 and 2

d1      di di
Voltage across coil 1: v1  N1.  N1. 11 21 . 1  L1 1
dt i1 dt dt
21 di1 di
Voltage across coil 2: v21  N 2  M 21 1 mutual voltage due to i1 in coil 1
i1 dt dt
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.2. Mutual inductance

+ Consider 2 coils L1, L2 are in close proximity with each other: ϕ12(t)

o Current in both coil 1 and 2: ϕ11(t) ϕ21(t) ϕ22(t)

L1 L2
i1(t) i2(t)
v11(t) v12(t) v21(t) v22(t)
v1(t) v2(t)

ϕ22 – magnetic flux links only in coil 2

 Magnetic flux ϕ2 emanating from coil 2 has 2 components:
ϕ12 – magnetic flux links both coil 1 and 2

d1      di di 12 di2 di

Voltage across coil 1: v11  N1.  N1. 11 21 . 1  L1 1 v12  N1  M 12 2
dt i1 dt dt i2 dt dt
di1 di
v1  v11  v12  L1  M 12 2
dt dt
di di
Voltage across coil 2: v2  v22  v21  L2 2  M 21 1
dt dt
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.2. Mutual inductance

+ Mutual inductance  the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage across a neighboring inductor,
measured in Henrys (H)

M 12  M 21  M  k L1 L2

+ Coefficient of coupling k:  the fraction of the total flux emanating from one coil that links the other coil

21 21  12

  k  12 
1 11  21 2 22  12
 Coupling coefficient k is a measure of the
magnetic coupling between two coil; 0 ≤ k ≤ 1

k = 1: Perfectly coupled
k > 0.5: Tightly coupled
k < 0.5: Loosely coupled
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.2. Mutual inductance ϕ12(t)

ϕ11(t) ϕ21(t) ϕ22(t)

L1 L2
i1(t) i2(t)
v11(t) v12(t) v21(t) v22(t)
v1(t) v2(t)
+ In general, the voltage across
the coils are: di1 di di2 di1
v1   L1  M 12 2 v2   L2  M 21
dt dt dt dt
+ The polarity (so the sign) of self-induced voltage is determined by the reference direction of the current
and the reference polarity of the voltage
+ The polarity (so the sign) of mutual voltage is determined by:
 physically wound of coils
 direction magnetic flux through the coils (Lenz’s law)
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.2. Mutual inductance ϕ12(t)

di1 di ϕ11(t) ϕ21(t) ϕ22(t)
v1   L1  M 12 2 L1
dt dt L2
i1(t) i2(t)

di2 di1 v11(t) v12(t) v21(t) v22(t)

v2   L2  M 21 v1(t) v2(t)
dt dt
+ It is inconvenient to show the construction details of coils on a circuit schematic  use dot convention in
circuit analysis

If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil,  the

reference polarity of the mutual voltage in the second coil
is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil

If the currents through 2 coils are the same direction to the dotted terminals in each coil
 the induced voltage and the mutual voltage in each coil have the same sign
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.2. Mutual inductance

If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil,  the reference polarity of the mutual voltage in the
second coil is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil

+ Example 13.1: Find vAB(t) in the given circuits

A B
A B

vAB (t)  vL1(t)  vL2 (t) vAB (t)  vL1(t)  vL2 (t)
di di di di di di di di
vAB (t)  L1  M12  L2  M21 vAB (t)  L1  M12  L2  M21
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
di di
vAB (t)  L1  L2  2M  vAB (t)  L1  L2  2M 
dt dt
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.2. Mutual inductance

+ Example 13.2. Calculate the mesh currents in the given circuit
-j3Ω j8Ω
4Ω
Solution 1000 0V
.
j2Ω .
Applying the mesh current method, we have: I1 I 2 5Ω
j6Ω
 R1  Z C  Z L1 I1  Z M I2  Z L1 I2  E

 Z M I1  Z L1 I1  R2  Z L 2  Z L1 I 2  0
  

Solve the system of two equations, obtained:

I1  20.33.50 A
I  8.693190 A
2
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13.3. Energy in a coupled circuit

+ Energy stored in an inductor: 1 2
w  Li
2
+ Energy magnetically stored in coupled coils:

o Increase i1 from 0 to I1 and maintain i2 = 0, energy caused by i1

t I
1

p1 t   v1i1  i1 L1
di1 1
 w1   p1dt L1  i1di1  L1 I12
dt 0 0
2
o Maintain i1 = I1 and increase i2 from 0 to I2 , energy caused by i2 :

p2 t   v2i2  i1M 12
di2 di2 di2
 i2 L2  I1M 12 power in the first coil
dt dt dt
t I2 I2
1
 w2   p2 dt L2  i2 di2  I1M 12  di2  L2 I 22  M 12 I1 I 2
0 0 0
2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.3. Energy in a coupled circuit

+ Total energy stored in the coils:
1 1
w  w1  w2  L1 I1  L2 I 22  M 12 I1 I 2
2

2 2
+ If we reverse the order:
o Increase i2 from 0 to I2 and maintain i1 = 0, energy caused by i2
t I
2

p2 t   v2i2  i2 L2
di2 1
 w2   p2 dt L2  i2 di2  L2 I 22
dt 0 0
2
o Maintain i2 = I2 and increase i1 from 0 to I1 , energy caused by i1 :

p1 t   v1i1  i2 M 21
di1 di di
 i1 L1 1  I 2 M 21 1 power in the second coil
dt dt dt
1 1
o Total energy stored in the coils: w  w1  w2  L1 I1  L2 I 2  M 21 I1 I 2
2 2

2 2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.3. Energy in a coupled circuit

1 1
+ In general case: w  w1  w2  L1 I12  L2 I 22  MI1 I 2
2 2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.4. Linear transformers

+ Transformer:  generally a four terminal device comprising two (or
more) magnetically coupled coils
+ For a transformer:
Primary winding: the coil connects to the voltage source
Secondary winding: the coil connects to the load
The resistances are included to account for the losses in the coil

+ Linear transformer: the coils are wound on a magnetically linear material (the magnetic permeability is
constant)

Magnetically linear material: Air, plastic, bakelite, wood,...

 Linear transformers are sometimes called air-core transformers
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.5. Ideal transformers

+ An ideal transformer:  one with perfect coupling (k = 1). It consists of
two (or more) coils with a large number of turns wound on a common core of
high permeability

+ A transformer is ideal if it has the following properties:

o Coils have very large reactance (L1, L2, M  ∞)
o Coupling coefficient is equal to unity (k = 1)
o Primary and secondary coils are lossless (R1 = 0 = R2)
 Iron-core transformer: approximation to ideal transformers

An ideal transformer is a unity-coupled, lossless transformer in which the primary and secondary
coils have infinite self-inductance.

V2 I1 N 2
+ Transformation ratio: n  
V1 I 2 N1
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.5. Ideal transformers

n = 1: isolation transformer
V2 I1 N 2
n   n > 1: step-up transformer
V1 I 2 N1
n < 1: step-down transformer
+ Rules for getting the proper polarity of V & the direction of I
 If V1 and V2 are both positive or both negative at the dotted terminals, use +n, otherwise, use –n
 If I1 and I2 are both enter into or leave the dotted terminals, use -n, otherwise, use +n

V2 N 2 I1 N 2 V2 N 2 I1 N V2 N I1 N 2 V2 N I1 N

    2  2   2  2

V1 N1 I N1 V1 N1 I2 N1 V1 N1 I N1 V1 N1 I2 N1
2 2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.5. Ideal transformers

+ Analyzing an ideal transformer circuit:
 eliminate the transformer by reflecting impedances & keep convert
sources from one side of the transformer to the other

o Find VTh and ZTh at the terminals a-b:

V2 V1 V2 1 Z
 
VTh  V1  Z Th   .  22
n I1 n nI2 n
convert keep
o Similarily, find Vth and ZTh at the terminals c-d:
V2 nV1
VTh  V2  nV1 Z Th    n 2 Z1
I2 I1
n
+ Note: If the dot locations are changed, we might have to
replace n by -n

17
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.5. Ideal transformers

+ Example 3: An ideal transformer is rated at 2400/120V, 9.6kVA, and has 50 turns on the secondary side.
Find the turns ratio n, the number of turn on the primary side N1, and the current rating for the primary and
secondary windings
Solution
V2 120
Turns ratio: n    0.05
V1 2400
V2 N 2 N2 50
Number of turns on the primary side: n    N1    1000
V1 N1 n 0.05
Currents for the primary & secondary winding:
S 9.6 S 9600
S  V1 I1  V2 I 2  9.6kVA  I1    4A  I2    80 A
V1 2.4 V2 120
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.5. Ideal transformers

+ Example 4: Given a circuit as the next figure. Find the source
current I1, the output voltage V0, and the complex power supplied
by the source?
1200Vrms

Solution
Replace the ideal transformer circuit by a Thevenin equivalent circuit
20 20
Reflected impedance to the primary side: Z R  2   5
n 4
Thevenin impedance: Z Th  Z R  4  j 6  9  j 6
 V1 120 keep convert
The source current: I    11.0933.69 0
A
Z Th 9  j 6
1

1
I2   I1  5.54533.690 A  V0  RI2  20 I2  110.9213.690 V
n
The complex power supplied by the source is:
~
S  V1 Iˆ1  120.11.09  33.690  1330.8  33.690 VA
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.5. Ideal transformers

+ Example 5: Calculate the power supplied to the 10Ω resistor in the given
ideal transformer circuit?

Solution
1200Vrms
Reflection to the secondary or primary side cannot be done because
there is direct connection between the primary and secondary sides
Applying the mesh analysis:
 120  20  30 I1  30 I2  V1  0

  V2  10  30 I 2  30 I1  0
  
1
At the transformer terminals: V2   V1 I2  2I1
2
Solving the set of 4 equations gives: I2  0.7272 A

The power absorbed by the 10Ω resistor: P   0.7272  .10  5.3W

2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.6. Ideal autotransformers

+ An autotransformer:  a transformer in which both the primary and
the secondary are in a single winding
+ The connection point (tap):
Adjustable
Provide a turn ratio for stepping-up/down voltage Step-down autotransformer

+ Features of autotransformer:
 Transfer larger apparent power
 Smaller & lighter than equivalent 2-winding transformer
 Loss electrical isolation
+ Note:
o In the autotransformer, the primary & secondary sides  not only
Step-up autotransformer
coupled magnetically but also coupled conductively
o Autotransformer: can be used in place of a conventional transformer when electrical isolation
is not required
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.6. Ideal autotransformers

+ For step-down autotransformer circuit:
. N
.
N1  N 2 N1
V1
.  primary   V1
.  1
N secondary N2 V2 N2
V2
. .* * V2 I1. I1 N2
S1  V1 I 1  S2  V2 I 2     Step-down autotransformer
V1 I2 I 2 N1  N 2

+ For step-up autotransformer circuit:

. N N1 I1 N1  N 2 N
V. 1  primary
   1 2
V2 N secondary N1  N 2 I2 N1 N1

Step-up autotransformer
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.6. Ideal autotransformers

+ Example 6: Calculate I1, I2, I0 and the complex power supplied to the
load if ZL = 8 + j6?
Solution 120300 rms

o Applied the equation for step-up autotransformer:

V1 N primary N1 120 200 
    V2  V1  1.67 120300  200300 V
V2 N sec ondary N1  N 2 200 120
V 200 30 0
I2  2
  20  6.87 0 A
ZL 8  j6
o From the current relation, we have:
I1 N1  N 2 200 200 
   I1  I 2  33.3  6.87 0 A  I0  I2  I1  13.3  6.87 0 A
I2 N1 120 120

o Complex power supplied to the load: S 2  Z L I 2  8  j 6 .20 2  436.87 0 kVA

~  2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.7. Three phase transformers

+ To meet the demand for three phase power transmission:
Transformer connection need compatible with three phase operation

+ Two ways of 3 phases transformer connection:

Transformer bank: Three single phase transformers having the same turn ratio are connected

Three phase transformer:

One transformer  smaller and chipper (for the same kVA rating)

+ Powers:
ST  3VL I L
PT  ST cos  3VL I L cos
QT  ST sin  3VL I L sin
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.7. Three phase transformers

+ Four standard ways of connecting three single phase transformer / three phase transformer: Y-Y, ∆- ∆,
∆-Y, Y- ∆
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.8. Applications of transformers

+ Transformers have numerous applications:

Step-up/down voltage and current for power transmission and distribution

Isolate one portion of a circuit from another: transfer power without any electrical connection

Impedance-matching device for maximum power trans

Frequency-selective circuits: their operation depends on the response of inductances

 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.8. Applications of transformers

+ Transformer as an isolation device:

Provide electrical isolation between:

 the AC power supply and the rectifier
 the first stage amplifier and the second
 Step (up or) down voltage in measurement circuits
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.8. Applications of transformers

+ Transformer as a matching device:

o For maximum power transfer, the load resistance RL

must be matched with the source resistance RS

o Iron-core transformer can be used to match RL to RS

RL
RS 
n2
 Step-down transformer is needed as matching device when RS > RL

 Step-up transformer is needed as matching device when RS < RL

 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS – AC Circuits

13.8. Applications of transformers

+ Power distribution

A power system: Generation, transmission and distribution

 Step-up transformers are used to feed the generated

power to the transmission line

 Distribution (step-down) transformers are used to

step-down the voltage at substations