Power Generation

• Steam Generation
– 1. Heater and Boiler Operations. Steam is generated in main
generation plants, and/or at various process units using heat
from flue gas or other sources. Heaters (furnaces) include
burners and a combustion air system, the boiler enclosure in
which heat transfer takes place, a draft or pressure system to
remove flue gas from the furnace, soot blowers, and
compressed-air systems that seal openings to prevent the
escape of flue gas.
– Boilers consist of a number of tubes that carry the water-steam
mixture through the furnace for maximum heat transfer. These
tubes run between steam-distribution drums at the top of the
boiler and water-collecting drums at the bottom of the boiler.
Steam flows from the steam drum to the superheater before
entering the steam distribution system.
• 2. Heater Fuel.
• a. Heaters may use any one or combination of fuels including
refinery gas, natural gas, fuel oil, and powdered coal. Refinery off-
gas is collected from process units and combined with natural gas
and LPG in a fuel-gas balance drum. The balance drum provides
constant system pressure, fairly stable Btu-content fuel, and
automatic separation of suspended liquids in gas vapors, and it
prevents carryover of large slugs of condensate into the distribution
system. Fuel oil is typically a mix of refinery crude oil with straight-
run and cracked residues and other products. The fuel-oil system
delivers fuel to process-unit heaters and steam generators at
required temperatures and pressures. The fuel oil is heated to
pumping temperature, sucked through a coarse suction strainer,
pumped to a temperature-control heater, and then pumped
through a fine-mesh strainer before being burned.
• b. In one example of process-unit heat
generation, carbon monoxide boilers recover
heat in catalytic cracking units as carbon
monoxide in flue gas is burned to complete
combustion. In other processes, waste-heat
recovery units use heat from the flue gas to
make steam.
• 3. Steam Distribution. The distribution system consists of
valves, fittings, piping, and connections suitable for the
pressure of the steam transported. Steam leaves the boilers
at the highest pressure required by the process units or
electrical generation. The steam pressure is then reduced in
turbines that drive process pumps and compressors. Most
steam used in the refinery is condensed to water in various
types of heat exchangers. The condensate is reused as
boiler feedwater or discharged to wastewater treatment.
When refinery steam is also used to drive steam turbine
generators to produce electricity, the steam must be
produced at much higher pressure than required for
process steam. Steam typically is generated by heaters
(furnaces) and boilers combined in one unit.
• 4. Feedwater.
• a. Feedwater supply is an important part of steam generation.
There must always be as many pounds of water entering the system
as there are pounds of steam leaving it. Water used in steam
generation must be free of contaminants including minerals and
dissolved impurities that can damage the system or affect its
operation. Suspended materials such as silt, sewage, and oil, which
form scale and sludge, must be coagulated or filtered out of the
water. Dissolved gases, particularly carbon dioxide and oxygen,
cause boiler corrosion and are removed by deaeration and
treatment. Dissolved minerals including metallic salts, calcium,
carbonates, etc., that cause scale, corrosion, and turbine blade
deposits are treated with lime or soda ash to precipitate them from
the water. Recirculated cooling water must also be treated for
hydrocarbons and other contaminants.
• b. Depending on the characteristics of raw
boiler feedwater, some or all of the following
six stages of treatment will be applicable:
– Clarification
– Sedimentation
– Filtration
– Ion exchange
– Deaeration
– Internal treatment