Sensors 2019, 19, 4877 5 of 15

of the instrumented transformer would not be affected. The rest of the sensor materials consist of the
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16
optical fiber (silica) containing the FBGs and their coating (polyimide). In Table 1 the typical properties
of PEEK [21], TB [22] and optical fiber [23–25] materials are shown.
consist of the optical fiber (silica) containing the FBGs and their coating (polyimide). In Table 1 the
typical properties of PEEK [21], TB [22] and optical fiber [23–25] materials are shown.
Table 1. Some typical polyether ether ketone (PEEK) [18], transformerboard (TB) [19] and optical fiber
physical properties [23–25].
Table 1. Some typical polyether ether ketone (PEEK) [18], transformerboard (TB) [19] and optical fiber
physical properties Properties
[23–25]. Unit TB PEEK Fiber
Properties
Density Unit 3
Kg/m TB
1250 PEEK
1320 Fiber
2200 [23]
[23]
Density
Tensile strength Kg/m³
MPa 1250 97 132092 2200
3500 [23]
Tensile
Maximum strength
Temperature MPa
◦C 97105 92250 300[23]
3500 * [24]
[24]
Maximum
Dielectric Temperature
strength °C
kV/mm 105(in oil) 25020
14.5 300*
47–67 [25]
Dielectric strength *kV/mm
Polyimide 14.5 (in oil)
coating. 20 47–67 [25]
* Polyimide coating.
InInthis
thiswork
workthe thegoal
goalofofthe
theload
loadcell
cellwas
wastotomeasure
measurethe theaxial
axialcomponent
componentofofthe theforce
forcegenerated
generatedby
transient electric current of each transformer winding, in addition to its
by transient electric current of each transformer winding, in addition to its weight and the weight and the manufacturing
pressure.
manufacturingThe sensors wereThe
pressure. housed in the
sensors werewindings
housed as in wooden shimsasattending
the windings wooden theshims usual dimensions
attending the
with
usualthedimensions
load cells embedded
with the load in the
cellsshims,
embeddedresulting
in theinshims,
an instrumented
resulting inshim.
an instrumented shim.
Due
DuetotoFBG’s
FBG'ssensitivity
sensitivity to to elongation,
elongation, the optical
optical sensor
sensordesign
designwas wasbased
basedononthe thebending
bendingload load
cell
cellasasshown
shownininFigure
Figure2a.2a. AA drawing
drawing of the FBG FBG sensor
sensor package
packagebasedbasedon onthis
thisprinciple
principleisispresented
presented
ininFigure
Figure2b. 2b.As
Ascancanbebeseen
seen from
from Figure
Figure 2b, the operation
operation ofofthe
thesensor
sensorwas wasbased
basedon onthe
thethin
thinregion
region
deformation
deformationof ofthe
theFBG
FBG support
support material
material (concavity), where the
(concavity), where theFBG
FBGmustmustbe beinstalled
installedtotocapture
capture
suchan
such aneffect.
effect. This
Thisstructure
structurecan can bebesatisfactorily
satisfactorilymodeled by aby
modeled two-beam,
a two-beam,as theas
stiffness of the other
the stiffness of the
regions
other of theofblock
regions is much
the block greatergreater
is much than that
thanof that
the region
of the of interest.
region The sizing
of interest. Theof sizing
the sensor follows
of the sensor
the prismatic
follows beam design
the prismatic methodology
beam design according
methodology to the classical
according theorytheory
to the classical of materials resistance.
of materials The
resistance.
design parameters were: length width (b); height (h), force distributed
The design parameters were: length width (b); height (h), force distributed in the contact region in the contact region (p),
(p),
modulusofofelasticity
modulus elasticity(E)
(E)and
andthe theyield
yield strength
strength (σ) of the material.
material.

3.3.Results
Results
Thefollowing
The followingresults
results refer
refer to to sensors
sensors manufactured
manufactured withwith
the the
twotwo distinct
distinct typestypes of materials:
of materials: PEEK
PEEK
and TB. and
A 3DTB. A 3Dofmodel
model of theconsidered
the sensors sensors considered in this
in this work, work,
as well as well
as their as their parameters,
parameters, is presentedisin
presented
Figure in Figure
3, where 3, where
in Figure 3a thein Figure
sensor 3a the in
is shown sensor is shown
a sectional frontinview
a sectional front view
and in Figure andininan
3b seen
Figure 3b seen in an isometric view. Table 2 contains the parameter
isometric view. Table 2 contains the parameter values shown in Figure 3. values shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. A 3D model of the strain sensor considered in the experiments with its characteristic
Figure 3. A 3D model of the strain sensor considered in the experiments with its characteristic
dimensions. (a) Front view and (b) isometric view (half sensor).
dimensions. (a) Front view and (b) isometric view (half sensor).
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Sensors 2019, 19, 4877 6 of 15

Table 2. Sensor dimension values for PEEK and TB.

Dimensions
Table 2. Sensor (mm)
dimension values forTB
PEEK and PEEK
TB.
Ddisk 31 31
Dimensions (mm) TB PEEK
hdisk 8.8 8.8
hblock Ddisk 31
19 31 17.4
hdisk 8.8 8.8
helipseh 19 11 17.4 7
block
h1 helipse 11 4.2 7 6.4
Delipse h1 4.2 22 6.4 22
wblockDelipse 22 50 22 50
wblock 50 50
DblockD 50 50 50 50
block

Before
Beforeperforming
performingthe theexperimental
experimentalmeasurements,
measurements,aacomputational
computationalstudy studywaswasconducted
conductedusing using
the COMSOL Multiphysics finite elements method (FEM) software. This
the COMSOL Multiphysics finite elements method (FEM) software. This study aimed to evaluate study aimed to evaluate
how
how the proposed
the proposed model model geometry
geometry deforms
deforms when when a constant
a constant forceforce is applied
is applied to upper
to the the upper
face face of disk
of the the
disk located
located on theonupper
the upper
part of part
theof the sensor.
sensor. For a sensor,
For a PEEK PEEK sensor, the simulation
the simulation result isresult
shownisin shown
Figurein4,
Figure 4, where the left y-axis (blue) shows the deformation values in με
where the left y-axis (blue) shows the deformation values in µε as a function of the applied as a function of the applied
force.
force. These values of displacement obtained in COMSOL were performed
These values of displacement obtained in COMSOL were performed where the FBG was positioned, where the FBG was
positioned, i.e., theofvariation
i.e., the variation the Delipseofparameter
the Delipse parameter
was measured was inmeasured in thisInsituation.
this situation. Figure 4 IntheFigure 4 the
right y-axis
right y-axis (red) shows the Von Mises stress values as a function of the applied
(red) shows the Von Mises stress values as a function of the applied force, the entire solid volume force, the entire solid
volume was considered
was considered and the maximum
and the maximum stress
stress value forvalue for eachforce
each applied applied
wasforce was measured,
measured, these forces these
and
forces
deformations refer to arrows indicated in Figure 3. Since the material data sheet [21] indicates that[21]
and deformations refer to arrows indicated in Figure 3. Since the material data sheet the
indicates thatofthe
elastic limit PEEKelastic
is 87limit of MPa,
to 95 PEEKthe is 87 to 95values
stress MPa, calculated
the stress values calculated in
in the simulation didthenotsimulation
reach this
did notthus
limit, reach this limit,
allowing thethus allowing
sensor to deformthe elastically
sensor to deform elastically in its operation.
in its operation.

Figure 4. COMSOL simulation results for PEEK sensor. The blue curve (left) shows the strain values
Figure 4. COMSOL simulation results for PEEK sensor. The blue curve (left) shows the strain values
(µε) and the red curve (right) shows the maximum Von Mises stress values in the sensor structure.
(με) and the red curve (right) shows the maximum Von Mises stress values in the sensor structure.
Figure 5 presents the contour plots that were obtained in the simulations. The graph in Figure 5a
Figure 5 presents the contour plots that were obtained in the simulations. The graph in Figure 5a
shows the displacement in millimeters suffered by the sensor in the presence of a force of 10.000 N.
shows the displacement in millimeters suffered by the sensor in the presence of a force of 10.000 N.
In addition, the graph of Figure 5b shows a von Mises stress surface graph in MPa that the structure
In addition, the graph of Figure 5b shows a von Mises stress surface graph in MPa that the structure
presents when pressed by a force of 10.000 N. The stresses and deformation shown in these figures
presents when pressed by a force of 10.000 N. The stresses and deformation shown in these figures
were related to the quantities of Figure 4. The important parameter was the deformation suffered by
the fiber and the upper pressure was a reference for the obtained strain in this FBG position.