English in chemistry 1 – 2021 PGS.TS.

Nguyễn Tuyết Phương

Lesson 1. ATOMS AND ATOMIC THEORY

1.1 Listening: What is an atom?

Complete the paragraph by filling the blanks

Atoms make up all of the earth’s matter. …(1)… can be broken down into three basic
components: positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons, and neutrally charged
neutrons. The number of these …(2)… and their arrangement determines the atom’s
elemental properties. Here we have a helium atom. Helium atoms consist of two …(3)…,
two neutrons, and two electrons. The nucleus at the center of the atom is made up of protons
and neutrons. The nucleus is relatively small in relationship to the rest of the atom. In fact, if
an atom were the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would only be as big as a pea. The
remainder of the atom’s volume is made up of …(4)… with electrons orbiting around the
nucleus. While the electrons orbiting the nucleus occupy a relatively vast amount of space
and comprise most of an atom’s volume, they have virtually zero mass. Protons and …(5)…
on the other hand although very small contribute most of the mass of an atom.
Electrons are arranged in the electron cloud by the distance of their orbit from the nucleus.
These …(6)… layers are also referred to as shells. Each shell can hold only a certain
number of electrons. The exact number of possible electrons per shell is defined by a rule of
quantum mechanics stating that each orbit is filled when its electron count equals …(7)…
times N squared or 2n squared where N is the number of shells away from the nucleus for
which you are calculating the maximum number of electrons, also known as the principal …
(8)… number. To calculate the number of electrons in in the first shell, you would use the
equation 2 times 1 squared which is 2 times 1 or 2 electrons. For the second shell, it would
be 2 times 2 squared or 2 times 4 to give eight …(9)…. For the third, two times three
squared or two times nine equals eighteen electrons. And for the fourth shell, it would be
two times 4 squared or 2 times 16 yielding 32 electrons and so on. …(10)… may have up to
7 shells though each shell may not have its full allotment of electrons. This formula can be
used to calculate the theoretical electron capacity for elements having a maximum of seven
shells.

1.2 Reading: Properties of protons, neutrons and electrons

The number of protons in a given atom is called the atomic number, or the proton number,
Z. The number of electrons in the atom is also equal to Z because the atom is electrically

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neutral. The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called the mass number, A.
The number of neutrons, the neutron number, is A-Z.
An electron carries an atomic unit of negative charge, a proton carries an atomic unit of
positive charge, and a neutron is electrically neutral. The table below presents the charges
and masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons in two ways. To present the composition of
any particular atom, we need to specify its number of protons (p), neutrons (n) and electrons
(e).
The atomic mass unit is defined as exactly 1/12 of the mass of the atom known as carbon-12
(read as carbon twelve). An atomic mass unit is abbreviated as amu and denoted by the
symbol u. As we see from the table, the proton and neutron masses are just slightly greater
than 1 u. By comparison, the mass of an electron is only about 1/2000th the mass of the
proton or neutron.
Atoms that have the same atomic number (Z) but different mass numbers (A) are called
isotopes. The percentage of each isotope is the percent natural abundances. Some elements,
as they exist in nature, consist of just a single type of atom and therefore do not have
naturally occurring isotopes. Aluminum, for example, consists only of aluminum-27 atoms.

Table: Properties of three fundamental particles

Electric charge Mass
SI (C) Atomi SI (g) Atomic (u)*
c
Electron -1.6022 × 10-19 -1 9.1094 × 10-28 0.00054858
Proton +1.6022 × 10-19 +1 1.6726 × 10-24 1.0073
Neutron 0 0 1.6749 × 10-24 1.0087
*u is the SI symbol for atomic mass unit (abbreviated as amu)

Q1. Answer the following questions by using the reading text.

1. What can the atomic number be used to determine?
2. Why don’t all of atoms of a specific element which have the same number of protons
necessarily have the same number of neutrons?
3. How can the mass number be calculated?
4. Does an electron carry an atomic unit of negative charge? How much is it?

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5. What is the electric charge of proton in SI system?

Q2. - Find sentences in the text containing the passive voice.

- Make 5 sentences in the passive voice using content of the text.

Q3. - Make groups of students.

- Each group prepares 5 questions.
- Each group takes turn to ask and answer questions from the other group.

Grammar note:
1. Passive voice
TO BE + V (past participle)
2. Question forms
- Yes-No question
- WH question

1.

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Lesson 2. THE PERIODIC TABLE

2.1 Listening: Periods and groups in the periodic table

Complete the paragraph by filling the blanks

As you move from the light elements to the …(1)… elements, you keep periodically coming
across the same properties which are why it’s called the periodic table. The recurring
properties are …(2)…, so that you can easily see similarities between elements. The
periodic table is arranged in periods and …(3)…, going from the light elements at the top to
the heavy elements at the bottom.
The rows going across from left to right are …(4)…. Elements in the same period all share
something in common. They have the same number of energy …(5)…. Each new period
row represents a new shell. Elements in the first period have one shell and as we go down
the shells increase. …(6)… is in the first period. It has one shell. Potassium is in the fourth
period and has four energy shells as do all the other elements in this period.
The columns going down from top to bottom are the groups. Elements in the same group
also have something in …(7)…. Elements in the same group have the same number of
electrons in the outermost shell. The electrons in the outer shell are called the valence
electrons. This just means that these electrons are available for …(8)… and bond formation.
The number of electrons in the outer shell governs element reactivity which is why elements
in the same group have similar …(9)…. The group number can tell you how many electrons
are in this shell, for example, let’s look at group seven, fluorine, chlorine, …(10)…,
bromine and astatine. They all have seven electrons in the outermost shell and all exhibit
similar chemical characteristics. The properties show a gradual change going down the
group as we go from period to period. So if we look at group seven again, we can see that
they are each in the different period in the …(11)… table, telling us that each element in this
group has its outer electrons on the different shell. So chlorine is in group seven, period
three, therefore, it has …(12)… energy levels with seven electrons in its outermost shell.

2.2 Reading:
The periodic table is arranged in such a way that elements in the same vertical column have
similar characteristics. Therefore, it is often useful to refer to all the elements in a given
column as a group or family. Each group has a number, and some have a group name. For

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example, the last column on the right is

group 18, and the elements in this
column are called noble gases. Main-
group elements are those in groups 1, 2,
and 13 to 18. When main-group metal
atoms in groups 1 and 2 form ions, they
lose the same number of electrons as
their group number. Whereas when
nonmetal atoms form ions, they gain
electrons.
Most of the elements are classified as metals, which means they have the following
characteristics.
- Metals have a shiny metallic luster.
- Metals conduct heat well and in the solid form conduct electric currents.
- Metals are malleable, which means they are capable of being extended or shaped by the
blows of a hammer. (For example, gold, Au, can be hammered into very thin sheets without
breaking.)
There is more variation in the characteristics of the nonmetal elements. Some of them are
gases at room temperature and pressure, some are solids, and one is a liquid. They have
different colors and different textures. The definitive quality shared by all nonmetals is that
they do not have the characteristics mentioned above for metals. For example, sulfur is a
dull yellow solid that does not conduct heat or electric currents well and is not malleable. It
shatters into pieces when hit with a hammer.
A few of the elements have some but
not all of the characteristics of metals.
These elements are classified as
metalloids or semimetals. Authorities
disagree to some extent concerning
which elements belong in this category,
but the elements in yellow boxes in the
image on the right are commonly
classified as metalloids.
The portion of the periodic table that contains the metallic elements is shown here in gray,
and the portion that contains the nonmetallic elements is shown in light blue. The stair-step
line that starts between B and Al on the periodic table and descends between Al and Si, Si

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and Ge, and so on separates the metallic elements from the nonmetallic elements. The
metals are below and to the left of this line, and the nonmetals are above and to the right of
it. Most of the elements that have two sides of their box forming part of the stair-step line
are metalloids. Aluminum is usually considered a metal.

Q1. Complete the following statements by writing one of these words or phrases in each
blank
extended or shaped group gain metals lose
metalloids metallic halogens nonmetals period

1. The periodic table is arranged in such a way that elements in the same _______ have
similar characteristics.
2. Atoms in group 1 and 2 tend to _______ electrons.
3. Atoms in group 17 tend to _______ electrons.
4. Metals are malleable, hence they are able to be __________ by the blows of a hammer.
5. The elements in group 17 given in the periodic table are known as __________.
6. At room temperature and pressure, __________ show a variety of characteristics can be
gas, solid or liquid.
7. __________are generally ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity, and have a
lustrous or shiny appearance.
8. __________ are chemical elements which have properties in between those of metals
and nonmetals.

Q2. - Find sentences containing relative clause/phrase in the text.

- Make 5 sentences with the relative clause/phrase.
Q3. - Make groups of students.
- Each group prepares 5 questions.
- Each group takes turn to ask and answer questions from the other group.

Grammar note: Relative clause and relative phrase (who, which, when, where, that)

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Lesson 3. ATOMS AND ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

3.1 Listening: Drawing electron configuration diagrams

Complete the paragraph by filling the blanks

You need to be familiar with the structure of an atom before going any further, and you may
wish to look at the lesson “Parts of an atom, their charge, and their mass” first.
Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the …(1)… of an atom. The actual
orbit shapes are a bit too complicated to cover in such a short lesson, but on average, the
orbital radius increases as the energy levels increase. In our diagrams, the shell nearest the
nucleus is going to represent the lowest energy level or shell, and we draw a …(2)… to
depict each shell. We use a dot or a cross to represent each electron, and we represent the
nucleus by the chemical symbol. Each electron in an atom is in a particular shell, and the
electrons must occupy the …(3)… available shell nearest the nucleus. So when we are
drawing the electron configuration, we have to fill up each shell in turn, starting with the
lowest.
We’ll take a lithium atom as an example. With an atomic number of three, it must have
three electrons to …(4)… the positive charge of the three protons in the nucleus. It’s worth
remembering that the atomic number tells you the total number of electrons in a neutral
atom. So, we put the first electron into the first shell, and the second. However, this shell
can only contain a maximum of two electrons. That’s one of the rules that you need to
remember. The third electron, therefore, must go into the next shell which we draw as a
larger circle around the outside of the first. And that completes the electronic …(5)… of a
lithium atom.
The same process of filling up shells applies to larger atoms. You always start with the
lowest available shells, and whenever a shell is full, the next electron to be …(6)… goes
into the next shell. And that’s pretty much it. All you need to know is how many electrons
can occupy each shell. And at this level, you only need to know the rules for the first twenty
elements. The maximum numbers are as follows:
- The first shell can …(7)… a maximum of two electrons
- The second shell up to eight electrons.
- The third shell also has a maximum of eight electrons.
- And the nineteenth and twentieth electrons go into the fourth shell.

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And this would actually represent a calcium …(8)…. Note that as we fill up each level,
we’ve been drawing the electrons evenly spaced out on each shell. This is to keep the
diagram tidy and make it easier to count electrons. And what’s more, there’s a short-hand
way of …(9)… this down: “2.8.8.2”. The first number represents the inner shell or lowest
energy level. The full stop shows how the electrons are separated between the shells. The
second number tells us how many electrons are in the next shell, followed by the third and
fourth shells. And so now it’s your turn. I’d like you to draw the electron configuration of a
…(10)… atom. Pause the video, find a piece of paper, and have a go.
And here is what it should look like. It has a full first shell, and four electrons in the outer
shell. Did you get it right?
Now, how would you write the electron configuration in numbers for this atom? Pause the
video again or rewind if you need to have a think about this.
The answer is that it would be …(11)…: two dot four. And now that you have covered the
basics of drawing electron configurations, you’ll be ready to tackle our lesson “Electron
configuration of the first twenty elements”.

3.2 Reading: Rules of assigning electrons to orbitals

1. Electrons occupy orbitals in a way that …(1)….
Electrons occupy the subshells in the principal electronic shells; first the 1s, then 2s, 2p, and
so on. The exact order of filling of orbitals has been established by
experiment, principally through spectroscopy and magnetic studies,
and it is this order based on experiment that we must follow in
assigning electron configurations to the elements. With only a few
exceptions, the order in which orbitals fill is:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
Some students find the diagram pictured in Figure 1 a useful way to Figure 1. The order of
remember this order, but the best method of establishing the order of filling of electronic
subshells
… (2)….
2. No two electrons in an atom can have all four quantum numbers alike – the Pauli
exclusion principle.
In 1926, Wolfgang Pauli explained complex features of emission spectra associated with
atoms in magnetic fields by proposing that no two electrons in an atom can have all four
quantum numbers alike. The first three quantum numbers, n, l and ml, determine a specific
orbital. Two electrons may have these three quantum numbers alike; but if they do, …(3)…,

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the spin quantum number. Another way to state this result is that only two electrons may
occupy the same orbital, and these electrons must have opposing spins.
Because of this limit of two electrons per orbital, the capacity of a subshell for electrons can
be obtained by doubling the number of orbitals in the subshell. Thus, …(4)…; the p subshell
consists of three orbitals with a total capacity of six electrons; and so on.
3. When orbitals of identical energy (degenerate orbitals) are available, electrons
initially occupy these orbitals singly.
In line with this rule, known as Hund's rule, an atom tends to have as many unpaired
electrons as possible. This behaviour can be rationalised by saying that electrons, because
they all carry the same electric charge, …(5)…. They do this by seeking out empty orbitals
of similar energy in preference to pairing up with an electron in a half-filled orbital.

Q1. Complete the reading text above by writing one of these sentences or phrases in each
blank (two of them do not belong to the text)
1. they must have different values of ms
2. try to get as far apart as possible
3. filling of orbitals is based on the periodic table
4. maximizes the energy of the atom
5. minimizes the energy of the atom
6. electrons in orbitals are shown as arrows
7. the s subshell consists of one orbital with a capacity of two electrons
Q2. - Find prepositions in the text.
Q3. - Make groups of students.
- Each group prepares 5 questions.
- Each group takes turn to ask and answer questions from the other group.

Grammar note:
Preposition + Noun
V-ing
Lesson 4. CHEMICAL BONDING

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4.1 Listening: Covalent bonds

Complete the paragraph by filling the blanks

In this video you are going to learn about covalent bonds, how they are made and how they
…(1)…. If you haven’t seen it already, first have a look at our video “Structure and
bonding”.
Only the noble gases …(2)… naturally as single atoms. All the other elements of the
periodic table have partially filled valence shells or outer electron shells. Atoms bond by
swapping or sharing electrons in their outer shells. When very different atoms …(3)… like
metals and nonmetals, they normally swap electrons. This is ionic bonding. When similar
atoms react like nonmetals combining with other nonmetals, they …(4)… electrons. This is
covalent bonding.
Nonmetals are found on the right hand side and upper part of the …(5)… table. Some
common nonmetals are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halides. They have shells of
electrons that are normally half or more than half full of electrons. Since they have a strong
…(6)… for few additional electrons, it is energetically unfavorable for them to lose
electrons. So they share electrons by overlapping orbitals. This makes a bonding orbital or
…(7)… bond that contains two electrons.
If there is space in the outer shell, a nonmetal atom can form double or triple bonds like in
oxygen, or …(8)…. In the displayed formula of a compound, we represent a covalent bond
with a straight line like this. We can also represent a covalent bond as a dot and cross
diagram. These …(9)… show only the valence electrons. To learn more about dot and cross
diagrams, watch our video on dot and cross diagrams.
Covalent bonds are directional which means they are in fixed position like holding hands.
This is different from …(10)… bonds which are formed with an electrostatic attraction
between charged ions. The overlap between orbitals means that the atoms in covalent bonds
are very close. These things make covalent bonds …(11)…. There are two kinds of covalent
structure: small molecules like water and giant compounds like diamond. Because the
electrons in the bonds are evenly shared, …(12)… are not polarized. There is little attraction
between molecules and forces between molecules are weak. Compounds made from small
covalent molecules have low melting and boiling points, and are volatile. They also don’t …
(13)… electricity.
4.2 Reading:

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Each noble gas particle consists of a single atom. When we picture the helium gas in a
helium-filled balloon, each of the particles in our image is a helium atom containing two
protons and two neutrons in a tiny nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negative charge
generated by two electrons.
The particles in hydrogen gas are quite different. Instead of the single atoms found in
helium gas, the particles in hydrogen gas are pairs of hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom
has only one electron, and single, or “unpaired,” electrons are less stable than electrons that
are present as pairs. To gain the greater stability conferred by pairing, the single electron of
one hydrogen atom can pair up with a single electron of another hydrogen atom. The two
electrons are then shared between the two hydrogen atoms and create a bond that holds the
atoms together. Thus hydrogen gas is described as H 2. We call this bond between atoms due
to the sharing of two electrons a covalent bond. The pair of hydrogen atoms is a molecule,
which is an uncharged collection of atoms held together with covalent bonds. Two hydrogen
atoms combine to form one hydrogen molecule.
There is also a covalent bond between the hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom in each
molecule of HCl. It is very similar to the covalent bond in hydrogen molecules, with one
important exception. The difference between the H–Cl bond and the H–H bond is that the
hydrogen and chlorine atoms in HCl do not share the electrons in the bond equally. In the
hydrogen-chlorine bond, the two electrons are attracted more strongly to the chlorine atom
than to the hydrogen atom. The negatively charged electrons in the bond shift toward the
chlorine atom, giving it a partial negative charge, δ−, and giving the hydrogen atom a partial
positive charge, δ+. The lower case Greek delta, δ, is a symbol that represents partial or
fractional.
When the electrons of a covalent bond are shared unequally, the bond is called a polar
covalent bond. Due to the unequal sharing of the electrons in the bond, a polar covalent
bond has one atom with a partial positive charge, δ+, and one atom with a partial negative
charge, δ−.
Sometimes one atom in a bond attracts electrons so much more strongly than the other that
one or more electrons are fully transferred from one atom to another. This commonly
happens when metallic atoms combine with nonmetallic atoms. A nonmetallic atom usually
attracts electrons so much more strongly than a metallic atom that one or more electrons
shift from the metallic atom to the nonmetallic atom. For example, when the element
sodium combines with the element chlorine to form sodium chloride, NaCl, the chlorine
atoms attract electrons so much more strongly than the sodium atoms that one electron is
transferred from each sodium atom to a chlorine atom.

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When an electron is transferred completely from one uncharged atom to another, the atom
that loses the electron is left with one more proton than electron and acquires a +1 charge
overall. It therefore becomes a cation. In contrast, an uncharged atom that gains an electron
will have one more electron than proton, so it forms an anion with a -1 charge. Because
particles with opposite charges attract each other, there is an attraction between cations and
anions. This attraction is called an ionic bond.

Q1. Complete the following statements by writing one of these words or phrases in each
blank
negligible (or zero) gains single atom ionic loses
covalent bond eight noble gas covalent ion

1. Each noble gas particle consists of a(n) __________.

2. When an atom _______ one or more electrons, it will have more protons than electrons
and more plus charge than minus charge. Thus it becomes a cation, which is an ion with a
positive charge.
3. When an atom _______ one or more electrons, it then has more electrons than protons
and more minus charge than plus charge. Thus it becomes an anion, which is an ion with a
negative charge.
4. An atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained one or more electrons to create a
charged particle is called a(n) __________.
5. A(n) __________ is a link between atoms that results from the sharing of two electrons.
6. When the difference in electron-attracting ability between atoms in a chemical bond is
__________, the atoms in the bond will have no significant partial charges. We call this
type of bond a nonpolar covalent bond.
7. When a nonmetallic atom bonds to another nonmetallic atom, the bond is __________.
8. When a metallic atom bonds to another nonmetallic atom, the bond is _______.
9. Nonmetallic atoms form anions to get the same number of electrons as the nearest
__________.
10. When atoms other than the noble gas atoms form bonds, they often have _______
electrons around them in total.

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Q2. - Find sentences containing the comparative clause in the text.

- Make 5 sentences with the comparative clause.

Q3. - Make groups of students.

- Each group prepares 5 questions.
- Each group takes turn to ask and answer questions from the other group.

Grammar note: Comparative clause

- Short adj/adv:

Adj/adv + er + than

- Long adj/adv:

More/less + Adj/adv + than

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Lesson 5. STATES OF MATTER

5.1 Listening: The three well-known states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases
Complete the paragraph by filling the blanks

In this video you are going to learn what the …(1)… states of matter are, some examples of
each state of matter, the characteristic properties of the three states of matter. The three
states of matter are …(2)…, …(3)… and …(4)…. Let us look at solids. An example of a
solid is your computer. The properties of solids depend on how the particles in solids are
packed. In a solid the particles are closely …(5)… in fixed positions and cannot move
anywhere. So solids are rigid, cannot be squashed to compress, have a fixed shape and a
fixed …(6)…. They cannot flow.
Now let us look at liquids. An example of a liquid is …(7)…. Just as with solids, the
properties of liquids depend on how the particles in liquids are packed. In a liquid the
particles are again closely packed but not as closely packed as in solids. So this means the
particles in liquids can move around each other. So liquids are not …(8)…, but because
their particles are closely packed as in solids, they cannot be squashed to compress. They do
not have a fixed shape, but they do have a fixed volume. Beware with that one, as many
students think because liquids do not have a fixed …(9)…, they do not have a fixed volume
either. But they are wrong. If someone orders a pint of beer, they cannot make it two pints
but pouring it in two different containers. As you know liquids …(10)… flow.
Finally, let us look at gases. An example of a gas is …(11)…. This is the gas in party
balloons because it is less dense than air and unreactive. Again as with solids and liquids,
the …(12)… of gases depend on how the particles in gases are packed. Unlike solids and
liquids, the particles in gases are not closely packed. They are far apart. As a result, gases
are not rigid and can be …(13)… to compress. They do not have a fixed shape nor fixed
volume. They fill the whole space they are in.

5.2 Reading:
Gases consist of tiny particles widely spaced. Under typical conditions, the average distance
between gas particles is about ten times their diameter. Because of these large distances, the
volume occupied by the particles themselves is very small compared to the volume of the
empty space around them. For a gas at room temperature and pressure, the gas particles

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themselves occupy about 0.1% of the total volume. The other 99.9% of the total volume is
empty space (whereas in liquids
and solids, about 70% of the
volume is occupied by particles).
Because of the large distances
between gas particles, the
attractions or repulsions among
them are weak.
The particles in a gas are in rapid
and continuous motion. For example, the average velocity of nitrogen molecules, N 2, at 20
°C is about 500 m/s. As the temperature of a gas increases, the particles’ velocity increases.
The average velocity of nitrogen molecules at 100 °C is about 575 m/s.
The particles in a gas are constantly colliding with the walls of the container and with each
other. There are assumed to be no forces between molecules except very briefly during
collisions. That is, each molecule acts independently of all the others and is unaffected by
their presence, except during collisions. Because of these collisions, the gas particles are
constantly changing their direction of motion and their velocity. Individual molecules may
gain or lose energy as a result of collisions. In a collection of molecules at constant
temperature, however, the total energy remains constant.
The model described above applies to real gases, but chemists often simplify the model
further by imagining the behaviour of an ideal gas. An ideal gas differs from a real gas in
that
- The particles are assumed to be point masses, that is, particles that have a mass but
occupy no volume.
- There are no attractive or repulsive forces at all between the particles.
When we add these assumptions to our model for gases, we call it the ideal gas model. As
the name implies, the ideal gas model describes an “ideal” of gas behaviour that is only
approximated by reality. Nevertheless, the model succeeds in explaining and predicting the
behaviour of typical gases under typical conditions. In fact, some actual gases do behave
very much in accordance with the model, and scientists may call them ideal gases. The ideal
gas assumptions make it easier for chemists to describe the relationships between the
properties of gases and allow us to calculate values for these properties.

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Q1. Answer the following questions by using the reading text.

1. For a gas under typical conditions, what approximate percentage of the volume is
occupied by the gas particles themselves?
2. Why is it harder to walk through water than to walk through air?
3. When does the average velocity of the gas particles increase?
4. What are the key assumptions that distinguish an ideal gas from a real gas?
5. Which of the following statements is/are true about a gas in a closed container?
a. When the particles collide, the temperature rises in the container.
b. When the particles collide, the gas particles change their direction of motion and their
velocity.
c. When the particles collide, the temperature and pressure rise in the container.

Q2. - Make groups of students.

- Each group prepares 5 questions.
- Each group takes turn to ask and answer questions from the other group.

Grammar note:
1. Review of “If clause”
2. - Because + Clause
- Because of + Noun phrase

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Lesson 6. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: SOLID AND LIQUID

6.1 Listening: What are intermolecular forces

Complete the paragraph by filling the blanks

In this video, you are going to learn what we mean by intermolecular forces that there are
three common types of intermolecular force and the difference between these three types of
intermolecular force.
An intermolecular force is simply an attractive …(1)… between neighboring molecules.
There are three common types of intermolecular force namely (one) permanent dipole-
dipole forces; (two) hydrogen …(2)…; and (three) van der Waals’ forces. All of these three
forces are very much weaker than ionic or covalent bonds which …(3)… atoms and ions
together in elements and compounds. We have a video each on ionic and covalent bonds if
you haven’t learnt about them yet.
Let us now look at these three intermolecular forces one by one, first up our …(4)… dipole-
dipole forces. A polar molecule is one in which there is a permanent dipole arising usually
because the different atoms in the molecule have …(5)… electronegativities, the attraction
by a bonded atom for the pair of electrons in a covalent bond. Let us take hydrogen chloride
as an example. Hydrogen chloride is a …(6)… molecule as the pair of electron in the
hydrogen chlorine bond are nearer to the chlorine atom. In other words, they tend to one
pole. The chlorine atom has a stronger attraction to the electrons because it has a greater
electronegativity than the hydrogen atom. We can represent the hydrogen chloride …(7)…
as H (delta positive) and Cl (delta negative). Thus there will be an attraction between the
delta negative on the chlorine atom of one molecule and the delta …(8)… on the hydrogen
atom of a neighboring molecule. The diagram below shows the permanent dipole-dipole
force between the two molecules of hydrogen chloride indicated here by a red dashed line.
The second type of …(9)… force is the hydrogen bond. The permanent dipole in a covalent
bond between a hydrogen atom and a fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom is particularly
strong, thus the attraction between the electron deficient H delta positive of one molecule
and the lone pair of electrons on a …(10)…, oxygen, or nitrogen atom of another molecule
is much stronger than the permanent dipole-dipole attraction mentioned before between the
two hydrogen chloride molecules. This particular type of dipole-dipole attraction between
the electron deficient H delta positive of one molecule and the lone …(11)… of electrons on
a fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom of another molecule is given the special name of

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hydrogen bond. So a hydrogen bond is the attraction between the H delta positive of one
molecule and the delta negative on the lone pair of a fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom of a
…(12)… molecule. Even though a hydrogen bond has only about 5% the strength of a
covalent bond, it does have a significant effect on the physical properties of compounds. For
example, were it not for hydrogen bonds both water and alcohol would be …(13)… at room
temperature and pressure.
Number three, van der Waals’ forces. Firstly, note the spelling of van der Waals’ forces. It
is a lowercase “v” in “van” and the apostrophe comes after the s in “Waals”. Van der
Waals’ forces are induced dipole-dipole interaction. Let’s look at how these arise. They
arise out of movement of the electrons in the …(14)…. If we could freeze the action at any
moment in time, there would be an instantaneous dipole at that particular moment. These
induced dipole-dipole interactions called van der Waals’ forces occur in all molecules
whether polar or not, but are the only intermolecular forces between …(15)… molecules
such as the halogens and the noble gases. As the number of electrons in the molecule
increases, so do the van der Waals’ forces. This explains why there is an increase in boiling
point as we go down the group of halogens, and down the group of …(16)… gases.
So to recap, an intermolecular force is simply an attractive force between neighboring
molecules. The three common intermolecular forces are (1) permanent dipole-dipole forces;
(2) hydrogen bonds; and (3) van der Waals’ forces.

6.2 Reading:
In our study of gases, we noted that at high pressures and low temperatures intermolecular
forces cause gas behaviour to depart from ideality. When these forces are sufficiently
strong, a gas condenses to a liquid. That is, the intermolecular forces keep the molecules in
such close proximity that they are confined to a definite volume, as expected for the liquid
state. Intermolecular forces are important in establishing the form and behaviour of matter.
The origin of intermolecular forces, those interactions between molecules, arises from the
permanent and momentary unequal distribution of electron density within molecules.
The intermolecular forces that occur between molecules are collectively known as van der
Waals forces. The most common intermolecular forces of attraction are those between
instantaneous and induced dipoles (dispersion forces, or London forces). The magnitudes
of dispersion forces depend on how easily electron displacements within molecules cause a
temporary imbalance of electron charge distribution, that is, on the polarizability of the
molecule. In polar substances, there are also dipole dipole forces. Some hydrogen-
containing substances exhibit significant intermolecular attractions called hydrogen bonds,

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in which H atoms bonded to highly electronegative atoms N, O, or F in a molecule are

simultaneously attracted to other highly electronegative atoms in the same molecule or in
different molecules. Hydrogen bonding has a profound effect on physical properties, such as
boiling points and is a vital intermolecular force in living systems.
Vapor pressure, the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with a liquid, is a measure
of the volatility of a liquid and is related to the strength of intermolecular forces. The
conversion of a liquid to a vapor is called vaporization or evaporation; the reverse process
is called condensation. When the pressure exerted by the escaping molecules from the
surface of the liquid equals the pressure exerted by the molecules in the atmosphere, boiling
is said to occur. The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of
the liquid equals 1 atm. The critical point is the condition of temperature and pressure at
which a liquid and its vapor become indistinguishable.
When crystalline solids are heated, a temperature is reached where the solid state is
converted to a liquid, melting occurs. The temperature at which this occurs is the melting
point. When liquids are cooled, the crystalline material will form during the process of
freezing, and the temperature at which this occurs is the freezing point. Under certain
conditions solids can directly convert into vapor by the process of sublimation. The reverse
process is called deposition.

Q1. Choose a short description for each paragraph

1. Introduction of major types of intermolecular forces.
2. Some properties of solids.
3. An overview of intermolecular forces in general.
4. Crystal structures.
5. Some properties of liquids.
Q2. - Find sentences containing the relative clause/phrase in the text.
- Make 5 sentences with the relative clause/phrase.
Q3. - Make groups of students.
- Each group prepares 5 questions.
- Each group takes turn to ask and answer questions from the other group.

Grammar note: Participle phrase/short form of relative clause

- Present participle phrase
- Past participle phrase

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Lesson 7. SOLUTIONS

7.1 Listening: Standard solutions

Complete the paragraph by filling the blanks

In this video, we are going to learn three things about standard solutions.
-         What are they?
-         How do you make one?
-         Why?
Firstly, a standard solution is a solution of an accurately known …(1)…. Secondly, if you
prepare a standard solution, there are a few steps you have to follow. Before you make up a
standard solution, you should always …(2)… out your volumetric flask with distilled water.
This is to remove any contaminants.
-    Step A: You have to dissolve an accurately known mass of solute in a beaker. You
usually use a two decimal balance to achieve this.
-    Step B: You have to make sure that the mass is fully …(3)…. Can you think why? Pause
the video and continue when ready. You have to make sure that the mass is fully dissolved.
Otherwise, its concentration will be incorrect. Did you get it right?
-    Step C: You have to transfer the solution from the …(4)… to a volumetric flask. You
use a volumetric flask to measure the exact volume of water required for a standard
solution. You have to add the distilled water into the volumetric …(5)… until it reaches the
neck, gently swirling.
-    Step D: The last few drops of water have to be added …(6)…. So you use a pipette
and place the neck of the flask in front of a white tile at eye level. The water line appears
curved. When the …(7)… of the curve, called the meniscus, rests on the line marked on the
neck of the volumetric flask, you have made your standard solution of accurate volume and
a …(8)… concentration. You should invert it a couple of time at this point, just to make sure
it is thoroughly mixed. Do not be tempted to top-up the water again.
What do you think might happen if you were to add water past this mark? Pause the video
and continue when ready. The answer is the …(9)… solution would not be at the right
concentration. It would be more dilute than you expected it to be. And the experiment
completed with a solution like this would cause your results to be incorrect.

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You may wonder why bother to go to this trouble to make a standard solution and what
it is used for? The answer is that having a …(10)… where the concentration is accurately
known allows you to do something called a titration and calculate the concentration of an
unknown solution.
Here’s a challenge. Can you remember what a standard solution is and why it might be
useful? Pause the video and recap your ideas, continue when ready.
In summary, a standard solution is a solution of an accurately …(11)… concentration and it
can be used to find the concentration of an unknown solution in an experiment called a
titration.

7.2 Reading:
Generally, a solvent has a limited ability to dissolve a solute. …(1)…. A solution with less
than this maximum amount is an unsaturated solution. Under certain conditions a solution
can be prepared that contains more solute than a normal saturated solution; …(2)….
Solubility refers to the concentration of solute in a saturated solution and depends on
temperature.
Compounds synthesized in chemical reactions are generally impure, but the fact that the
solubilities of most solids increase with increased temperature provides the basis for one
simple method of purification. Usually, the impure solid consists of a high proportion of the
desired compound and lesser proportions of the impurities. Suppose that both the compound
and its impurities are soluble in a particular solvent and that we prepare a concentrated
solution at a high temperature. …(3)…. At lower temperatures, the solution becomes
saturated in the desired compound. The excess compound crystallizes from solution. …(4)
… because the temperature is still too high for
these to crystallize. This method of purifying a
solid is called fractional crystallization, or
recrystallization.
A common method of separating the volatile
components of a solution from one another is
called fractional distillation. Boiling solutions in
equilibrium with vapor can be spread out over a
long column, called a fractionating column, in
which the equilibrium temperatures range from …
(5)…. The most volatile component in the solution
emerges from the top of the column as a vapor that

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is condensed to a liquid and removed. The least volatile component concentrates in the pot
at the bottom of the column. Fractional distillation of a solution of many volatile
components, such as petroleum, can be carried out in such a way that …(6)…, one by one.

Q1. Complete the reading text above by writing one of these sentences or phrases in each
blank (two of them do not belong to the text)
1. Then we let the concentrated solution cool
2. the components are withdrawn from the top of the column and condensed
3. A solution containing the maximum amount of solute possible is a saturated solution
4. The impurities remain in solution
5. The desired compound remains in solution
6. such solutions are called supersaturated
7. lowest at the top of the column to highest at the bottom
8. highest at the top of the column to lowest at the bottom
Q2. - Find sentences containing the comparative and superlative clause in the text.
- Make 5 sentences with the comparative and superlative clause.
Q3. - Make groups of students.
- Each group prepares 5 questions.
- Each group takes turn to ask and answer questions from other group.

Grammar note: Superlative clause

- Short adj/adv:

the Adj/adv + est

- Long adj/adv:

th most/least + Adj/adv
e

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Lesson 8. IMPORTANT OF CHEMISTRY IN LIFE, EVERYDAY USES

8.1 Listening:
Complete the paragraph by filling the blanks

Does chemistry seem like a kind of thing that only old people in white coats can do? Well,
actually, all …(1)…, even our bodies are made of chemicals. When we eat, breathe, or just
sit down, the chemical reactions are taking place. All matter is made of some kind of
chemicals, so chemistry is the study of everything.
But how does chemistry occur in our everyday lives? The most obvious place is in the
kitchen. While we cook something, a chemical reaction …(2)…. The raw meat turns into
cooked meat so that our bodies can absorb the nutrients better. When we bake a cake, the
ingredients cause a chemical reaction to create the batter; and then another chemical …(3)…
happens when it goes into the oven. Even the way to store our food in the fridge, and when
things rot away are all chemical reactions.
Another common aspect where chemistry occurs is through …(4)…. Chemicals are created
to target specific areas like dishes, laundry, and your body. Imagine using bleach to wash
your body, it would burn. But even children know not to use bleach to wash themselves;
which means that the moment we start …(5)… about what cleaning products to use, we are
already junior chemists.
Medicine is another …(6)… use of chemistry. The pills and medicine we use are all made
from chemicals that are there to make our bodies stronger, and to kill viruses and bacteria.
Then things like fruits and supplements can be used to prevent …(7)…, and these are also
produced from chemical reactions. Basically, without medicine which requires chemistry,
we would get sick very often. And chemistry is used to research new medicines. Can you
believe that about a hundred years ago, people died from having a cold? It's because of
discoveries in chemistry that we now have cheap …(8)… to get rid of the cold.
Chemistry is also an important part of our environment. Fertilizers and compost for our
gardens are created when chemical reactions take place. Think about how cow and horse
dung is used to …(9)… plants, people were doing it for centuries before scientists
discovered how it actually works. But farmers started doing it after seeing how plants
reacted to the dung. So even though they didn't …(10)… chemistry like you are, they were
really good chemists.

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But there are more serious things to look at, like how some chemicals are nutritious to the
…(11)… and others cause pollution. Only through studying chemistry, can we begin to
discover ways to produce chemicals that are sustainable and not …(12)… to the natural
world.
In summary, we can see now that we're all chemists. From cooking food to cleaning
ourselves, we make choices everyday based on the way chemicals work. Chemistry is also
important for the creation of medicines and environmental issues. By doing …(13)… in
chemistry, we can find new cures for diseases as well as better chemicals to use in our
natural environment. Chemistry can help change the world.

8.2 Reading:
Your alarm rings early, and you are groggy from sleep but eager to begin working on a
chemistry assignment that’s coming due. Chemistry has taught you that there are interesting
answers to questions you might once have considered silly and childish. Preparing tea, for
example, now makes you wonder why the boiling water bubbles and produces steam while
the teakettle retains its original shape. How do the tea leaves change the color of the water
while the teabag remains as full and plump as ever? Why does sugar make your tea sweet,
and why is the tea itself bitter?
You settle down with tea and newspaper, and the wondering continues. An article about
methyl bromide, a widely used pesticide, says some scientists think it damages the ozone
layer. What are methyl bromide and ozone? How does one destroy the other, and why
should we care? How can we know if the ozone really is being depleted?
Later, as you drive to the library to get some books you need to complete that chemistry
assignment, you wonder why gasoline burns and propels your car down the road. How does
it pollute the air we breathe and what does the catalytic converter do to minimize the
pollution? At the library, you wonder why some books that are hundreds of years old are
still in good shape while other books that are only 50 years old have pages that are brown,
brittle, and crumbling. Can the books with damaged pages be saved?
Chemists can answer all these questions and others like them. They are scientists who study
the structure of material substances - collectively called matter - and the changes that they
undergo. Matter can be solid like sugar, liquid like water, or gaseous like the exhaust from
your car’s tailpipe. Chemistry is often defined as the study of the structure and behaviour of
matter.
Chemists do a lot more than just answer questions. Industrial chemists are producing new
materials to be used to build lighter and stronger airplanes, more environmentally friendly

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disposable cups, and more efficient anti-pollution devices for your car. Pharmaceutical
chemists are developing new drugs to fight cancer, control allergies, and even grow hair on
bald heads.
In the past, the chemists’ creations have received mixed reviews. The chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) used as propellants in aerosol cans are now known to threaten the Earth’s protective
ozone layer. The durable plastics that chemists created have proved too durable, so when
they are discarded, they remain in the environment for a long, long time. One of the
messages you will find in this book is that despite the occasional mistakes and failures, most
chemists have a strong social conscience. Not only are they actively developing new
chemicals to make our lives easier, safer, and more productive, but they are also working to
clean up our environment and minimize the release of chemicals that might be harmful to
our surroundings.

Q1. - Make groups of students.

- Each group prepares 5 questions.
- Each group takes turn to ask and answer questions from the other group.

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