KTH

Hedman Johan September 2022

SK2300 – Optical Physics – Polarization

Lab report
We certify that this work is original, that we cite by reference all the sources used and that it
does not contain plagiarism.

1 Polarization Experiments 2
1.1 Preliminary Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Malus’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Measuring the Polarization State of the Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Determining the Orientation of the λ/4 Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Behavior of λ/4 plate for green light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Saccharimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 3D Method with Red-Cyan Glasses 6

3 3D Projection with Linear Filters 7

4 3D Projection with the RealD Method 8

5 Conclusion 8

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1 Polarization Experiments
1.1 Preliminary Experiments
In the setup (Figure 1), we put a laser emitting a randomly polarized light (or at least we can consider that
in a first time). Then we first put two polarizers in the optic path before having a photo-sensor to measure
the light intensity at the end.
The transmission axes of the two polarizers are perpendicular. We then expect a null intensity. Indeed, after
the polarizer is the electromagnetic field is linearly polarized perpendicular to the axe of transmission of the
analyzer. And in fact we measure a very low voltage, meaning the intensity of the laser did not get through
(the remaining voltage could in part be explained by the fact there was other light sources than the laser in
the room). With Malus law we have,
π
If (θ1 ) = I0 cos2 (θ1 ) = I0 cos2 =0
2
Then we added another polarizer between the two. We observe the voltage goes up! and it is in a way
surprinsing ! We can explain it by using the Malus Law two times:

If (θ1 , θ2 ) = I1 (θ1 ) cos2 (θ2 − θ1 ) = I0 cos2 (θ1 ) cos2 (θ2 − θ1 )

With θ1 the angle between the axis of transmission of the first polarizer and the second, and θ2 between the
first polarizer and the third. Then θ2 = π2 and,
π 
If = I0 cos2 (θ1 ) cos2 − θ1
2
That can be rewritten
If (θ1 , θ2 ) = I0 cos2 (θ1 ) sin2 (θ1 )
It is now obvious that, except for θ1 = 0 or θ1 = π/2, the final intensity is not null and is maximal for
θ1 = π/4. This conclusion is supported by our experimental observations.

Figure 1: Setup

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1.2 Malus’ Law
In this section we want to find again the Malus’ law. In order to do that we variate the angle of the
transmission axis of the analyzer. The setup is shown on Figure 2.

Figure 2: Setup

We then consider the fact that the photo-diode returns a voltage proportional to the intensity of light
coming in. In the result (presented on graph 5), we see the voltage can reasonably be fitted with a the Malus’
law, that being a cosinus square multiplied by a constant.

300

280

260

240

220

200

180
Voltage (mV)

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

−20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Polarization angle (°)

Figure 3: Voltage function of angle

1.3 Measuring the Polarization State of the Laser

The aim is now to find the polarization state of the laser beam. To do so we put a polarizer between the
laser and the photosensor. Again we make the polarization angle variate between 0° and 90° and we collect
the voltage output of the photosensor. The results are presented in graph ??.

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 160

140

120
Voltage (mV)

100

80

60

40

20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Polarization angle (°)

Figure 4: Polarization of the laser

First, the voltage can be fitted with a cosine. That tends to show that the laser is at least partially
linearly polarized. Partially polarize since there is clearly no extinction of the intensity for any angle. That
means some intensity goes through the polarizer even when its transmission axes is perpendicular to the
linear polarization of the laser. Hence there is some energy non polarized states. Let’s find the angle of the
linear polarization, that means looking for the angle for which the voltage is maximal. We find θ = 170 ± 5◦ .

1.4 Determining the Orientation of the λ/4 Plate

In this section the aim is to find the midpoint between the slow and the fast axis of the plate. Correspond
to the maximum of intensity found for θ = 23◦ when with a voltage of 50 mV.

1.5 Behavior of λ/4 plate for green light

We show that for each angle the intensity is the same, meaning the field is not linearly polarized it is circularly
polarized!

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 58

56

Voltage (mV)
54

52

50

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Polarization angle (°)

Figure 5: Voltage function of concentration for setup with λ/4 plate

We don’t actually measure a constant voltage but the variation is very small and could not be fitted with
a cosine square. This small variations are among others due to errors of manipulation and measurement and
outside light that variates.

1.6 Saccharimetry
A way of determining the sugar (saccharose) concentration in a drink is to measure the rotation of the
polarisation. Saccharose is in fact a chiral molecule, it is therefore optically active and rotates the light’s
plane of polarization. This rotation is proportional to the concentration of sugar in the solution. We want
to find this constant of proportionality.

Figure 6: Setup

In the setup shown in figure 6 we change the concentration of sugar by adding more and more water
(with a quite high volume uncertainty due to not completely adapted tools) and we measure the angle for

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which the voltage is minimal (again with an estimated error of ±2◦ due to our manipulation). The results
are plotted on graph 7.

Figure 7: Relation between angle of rotation and concentration

A linear fit can be done on our data with a good correlation (R2 = 0.9964). We have found therefore
a constant of proportionality of 145.74 cm3 .g −1 .◦ . With this constant we can find the concentration of
sugar of a drink, however we had no drink to test.

2 3D Method with Red-Cyan Glasses

In the following sections, we aim to create a 3D imaging system. This rely on the principle that our eyes
are able to estimate the distance of an object from offset between the signal of this object between the two
eyes. To replicate this in a cinema we send two images with a small shift, each one of them being purposed
to be seen by one of our eye. The issue is then to have one eye see the image designed for it and not the other.

The first way to do so is to have one color filter per image. The two colors have to be complementary,
usually red and cyan are used, we used these colors in the lab. Each image goes through a filter and then
reaches the screen, is reflected and then hits another filter on the glasses. This ensures that only the light of
one image reaches the eye, the other one being blocked by the filter.

With my group, we realised this setup (figure 8) and could validate the method. We indeed see a 3D
image, however the color of the picture are affected as well as the contrast. This is why this method is no
longer used in cinema, which use the polarization of the light.

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 Figure 8: Red-Cyan Glasses Setup

3 3D Projection with Linear Filters

To preserve the color quality of the image, a method using the polarization of the light can be used. The eye
not being sensitive to the light’s polarization.

One way to do it is to polarize one image linearly with an certain angle α and the other one with an angle
α + π/2. Then the glasses also have polarizers with the same angles. One image will therefore arrive only to
one eye, due to Malus’ law.

The setup is shown on figure 9, the lenses and then the linear polarizers can be seen. Before doing this
setup we had to find the angle of the axis of transmission of one of the glass of the glasses. To do so we put
it between two linear polarizers and turn the second one in order to find the minimum voltage. We find an
angle α (I forgot to write it down). This angle α gives the angle of the axis of transmission of one of the
polarizer put after the light source, the other one is put at α + π/2. This method was also validated by our
setup, that means also that the screen preserves the polarization of the beam. I am not entirely sure it is
the case with a paper but we forgot to check. It should not be according to the papers of the constructors
saying they need non-depolarizing screens to use this technique in cinemas. This could be an idea to check
in future labs.

Figure 9: Caption

The issue with this method is that when the spectator tilts his/her head the angle of the polarizers is

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changed and the eye begins to see a bit of the two images hence a blurry image and no sense of depth.

This method is still used by IMAX 3d since sufficiently good quarter wave plates were not available at
the time and since this method enable a lower loss of light than the RealD method.

4 3D Projection with the RealD Method

This method aims to be working even if the spectator tilts his/her head. To do so the light is circularly
polarized, one right circularly and the other one left circularly polarized.

To create the image we put the light source, the object and then a polarizer with an arbitrary angle α
and then for one object a quarter wave plate at an angle α + π/4 and for the other one α − π/4. Then a
lens is placed to focus each image. This setup can be seen on figure 10. Then the glasses are made of a
quarter-wave plate and a polarizer, each one let only only the light from one image through.

Figure 10: Creation of an image using RealD method

Here again the experimentation enabled us to validate the method and assess that the 3d image is till
good when we tilt our heads.

We noticed that when we looked to ourselves in a mirror with these glasses and a closed eye we saw our
closed eye. That is because when reflected on the mirror the beam gains a phase shift of π, so the right
circularly polarized light becomes left polarized and vice-versa. This means that the light in the R-state
before being reflected by the screen is shifted to the L-state. This is to be taken into account to chose how
the depth should be for the spectator.

5 Conclusion
In conclusion we had during this laboratory experienced some applications of polarization : for the concen-
tration measurement of chiral molecules, 3d cinema and visualize stree in a material.