➢ semi-rigid form of connective tissue,
Skeletal Reviewer
Lesson 1: Functions of the Skeletal System
• The human skeletal system have bones,
cartilage, tendons, and ligaments in the
body.
• Skeleton makes up about 20 percent of
a person’s body weight. The skeletal
system is the body system that
performs critical functions for the
human body
• Types of Tissues in the Skeletal System
▪ Bone/Osseus Tissue; Cartilage;
Dense Connective Tissue;
Epithelium; Adipose Tissue;
Nervous Tissue.
HUMAN SKELETON
➢ endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones
in the adult. It lies within the soft
tissues of the body.
➢ living structure capable of growth,
adaptation and repair
➢ "exoskeleton"
▪ none living structure located on the
outside of the body and incapable
of growth (e.g. crabs, shrimps,
centipedes)
SKELETAL SYSTEM
➢ composed of bones, cartilage and
ligaments
BONE OR OSSEOUS TISSUE
➢ a hard, dense connective tissue that
forms most of the adult skeleton, the
support structure of the body.
CARTILAGE
provides flexibility and smooth surfaces
for movement, in the areas of the
skeleton where bones move (for
example, the ribcage and joints)
LIGAMENTS
➢ bands of dense and fibrous connective
tissue that are key to the function of
joints.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. SUPPORT
➢ Provides an internal framework of the
body, giving support to the soft tissues
and providing points of attachment for
most of the body, muscles
➢ It gives Shape
2. PROTECTION
➢ SKULL protects the brain
➢ SPINAL COLUMN protects the spinal
cord
➢ RIB CAGE protects thoracic organs
➢ STERNUM protects the heart
➢ PELVIS protects urinary bladder and
internal reproductive organs
3. ASSISTANCE IN MOVEMENT
➢ Muscles, tendons, ligaments are
attached to bone; when they contract,
they pull on bones to produce
movement.
4. MINERAL HOMEOSTASIS (STORAGE
AND RELEASE)
➢ Bone stores Ca, P, Na, K, and other
minerals
➢ Ca and P are important in muscle
contraction and nerve activity
➢ These can be mobilized and distributed
by the blood vascular system to other
regions as they are required by the
body.
➢ RESORPTION
▪ Part f normal development,
maintenance and repair of bones.
 5. BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION
(HEMOPOIESIS)
➢ Within certain bones, a connective
tissue called red bone marrow produces
red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets, a process called hemopoiesis.
➢ Hemo= “blood”; poiesis=” making” ➢
Red bone marrow is the main blood-
making tissue
➢ It is present in developing bones of the
fetus and in some adult bones, such as
the hip (pelvic) bones, ribs, sternum
(breastbone), vertebrae (backbones),
skull, and ends of the bones of the
humerus (arm bone) and femur (thigh
bone).
➢ In adolescence, RBM is only found in
the epiphyses of long bones, vertebrae,
ribs and cranium
➢ In a newborn, all bone marrow is red
and is involved in hemopoiesis.
➢ With increasing age, much of the bone
marrow changes from red to yellow
6. TRIGLYCERIDE STORAGE
➢ Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of
adipose cells, which store triglycerides.
The stored triglycerides are a potential
chemical energy reserve
LESSON 2. TYPES OF BONES
BONE
➢ is a rigid connective tissue
➢ the hardest tissue in the body
➢ When fully developed, it is composed
of:
▪ 20% water
▪ 30-40 % organic material (CHON)
▪ 40-50% inorganic materials
• Calcium Phosphate (CaPO4)-
primary ingredient for proper
bone density
• CaPO3 (Calcium Phosphate)
➢ Have their own system of blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels and nerves.
Matrix of Bone
➢ Contains abundant mineral salts
▪ Crystallized form of tricalcium
phosphate Ca3(PO4) 2
Hydroxypyatite
▪ CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)
▪ Small amounts of magnesium
hydroxide ▪
▪ Fluoride and sulphate
➢ Deposited in the framework formed by
collagen fibers of the matrix;
mineralization occurs; tissue hardens
➢ Hardness of bones depends on
crystallized inorganic mineralized salts
and organic collagen fiber.
Calcification
➢ Initiated by osteoblast (bone building cells)
➢ Occurs only in the presence of collagen
➢ Combination of crystallized salts and
collagen fibers are responsible for hardness
of bones
➢ Can be categorized as Compact of Spongy
Types of Bones
A. According to spaces between cells
1. Compact Bone
➢ Dense, strong, with closely spaced
lamellae (concentric layer of mineral
deposits)
➢ Forms external layer of all bones of the
body and bulk of the diaphysis of long
bones.
➢ Helps long bone resist stress of weight
placed on them
➢ Many osteon/haversian system (basic
functional unit of the compact bone.
Haversian System- series of tubes around
narrow channels formed by lamellae.
2. Cancellous/Spongy bone (20% of
Skeleton)
➢ Porous, light and weaker
➢ Widely spaced lamellae
➢ Does not contain true osteon.
(incomplete Haversian System)
➢ Has lamellae arranged in an irregular
lattice work of thin plates of bone call
Trabeculae.
B. According to Shape
1. Long Bones
➢ Length is greater than it’s width
➢ Located in the extremities
➢ Eg. Femur, humerus, radius
➢ Act as lever that rae pulled out by
contacting muscles
2. Short Bones
➢ Have equal length, width and thickness
but irregular in shape.
➢ Eg. Carpal, tarsal
3. Flat Bones
➢ Thin and flat
➢ Has two thin layers of compact bone
with spongy bone tissue between the,
➢ RBC are manufactures
➢ Protection of body organs
➢ Eg. Ribs, scapulae, ribs, cranial bones,
sternum
4. Irregular Bones
➢ Bones that don’t fit in any category
➢ Comes in different shape
➢ Eg, facial bones, hip bone, mandible,
vertebra and sacrum.
5. Sesamoid Bones
➢ Resembles sesame seed – small and
round
➢ Found adjacent to bones
➢ Eg. Patella
➢ Eliminates friction
➢ Slight support and protection
6. Accessory Bones/Supernumerary Bones
➢ Commonly found in the feet
➢ Occur when developing bones don’t
fuse completely
➢ Look like broken bones
ANATOMY OF BONES
A. Gross Anatomy of Long Bones
1. Diaphysis (growing between)
➢ Long main portion of the bone\hallow
cylinder which contains medullary
yellow bone marrow in adult.
➢ Storage area for adipose tissue
2. Epiphysis (Growing over)
➢ Distal and proximal extremities or ends
of bone
➢ Composed of Spongy bone covered by
thin layer of compact zone
➢ Contains red marrow
➢ Erythropoietic activity in the adult
mainly occurs in the bones and
vertebrae.
3. Metaphysis (between)
➢ Region in a mature bone where the
diaphysis joins epiphysis
 ➢ Made up of Epiphyseal Plate (Growth
Plate) and the adjacent bony
trabeculae.
➢ Epiphyseal Plates and metaphysis are
the only places where long bones
continue to grow in length after birth.
➢ Puberty where it stops growth the ones
calcifies and becomes epiphyseal lines.
➢ Space within the diaphysis that
contains the fatty yellow bone
marrow.
Two Kind of Bone Marrow
1. Red Marrow

4. Articular Cartilage ➢ Found at the epiphyses of long

➢ Thin layer of hyalin cartilage covering
the epiphysis; where the bone forms an
articulation with another bone
➢ Smooth slippery surface that decreases
friction at joint movement, absorbs
shock at freely movable joints.
bones and at the center of other
bones.
➢ Found in all cancellous bones of
childres
➢ Forms RBC; WBC; Platelets

5. Endosteum (within) 2. Yellow Marrow

➢ Membrane that lines the internal ➢ Found chiefly in the medullary

Cavities of bones cavity of a long bone
➢ Covers the trabeculae of spongy bone ➢ Composed of adipose tissue
tissue ➢ Fat storage
➢ Contains osteoprogenitor cells and
osteoclast
Microscopic Anatomy
6. Periosteum (around)
1. Osteon
➢ Strong fibrous membrane that covers and
protects the diaphysis ➢ Haversian System
➢ Has potential to form bone during growth ➢ Basic functional unit of compact
periods and in fracture healing. bone
➢ Gives the distinctive color of living bone ➢ Cylinders of calcified bone
➢ Has two layers ➢ Only seen in adult compact tissue
▪ Outer Fibrous Layer- Composed of ➢ Consist of
dense, irregular connective tissue • Central Cannal
containing BV, lymphatic vessels • Lamellae
and nerves that pass into the bones • Lacunae
▪ Inner Osteogenic Layer- Conatains • Osteocytes
elastic fiber, bv and bone cells • Canaliculi

7. Medullary/ Marrow Cavity

➢ Medullary- central part of the 2. Central Haversian Canals

structure
➢ Found in the center of the osteon
➢ Enclosed by the concentric lamellae
 ➢ Run longitudinally thru the bone
3. Lamellae
➢ Ring of hard, calcified matrix
➢ Concentric calcified bone
➢ Makes up cylinders of osteons
4. Lacunae
➢ “little takes”
➢ Small spaces between the lamellae
➢ Tiny cavities arranged in concentric
circles where osteons are found.
5. Canaliculi
➢ Tiny canals radiating from lacunae
to all directions
➢ Filled with ECF and slender,
fingerlike processes of osteocytes
➢ Connect Lacunae with central
canals.
➢ Provide routes for nutrients and O2
to each osteocytes and wastes
diffuse away.
7. Volkmanns Cannals/ Perforating Canals
➢ Communication pathway from outside
of the bone to it’s inferior
Types of Bone Cells
1. Osteoprogenitor
➢ Develops into osteoblast during timr of
stress and healing
➢ Unspecialized cells derived from
mesynchyme
➢ Can undergo mitosis or cell division
➢ Found in the inner portion of
periosteum, endosteum and in the
canals of the bone that contain BV.
2. Osteoblast
➢ Forms extracellular Matrix
➢ Blast- sprout/buds
➢ Immature bone cells
➢ Bone forming, repairing, bone building
cells
➢ Secrete matrix\responsible in bone
formation
➢ Does not undergo mitosis
➢ Found beneath periosteum
➢ Synthesize and secret collagen and
other organic components needed to
build bone tissue
➢ Secret unmineralized ground substance
known as osteoid
3. Osteocytes (cells)
➢ Cytes- maintain tissue
➢ Mature bone cells derived from
osteoblasts that had become entrapped
in matrix
➢ Principal cells of fully developed bone
tissue
➢ No mitotic potential
➢ No longer secret matrix material
➢ Function: maintain daily cellular
activities of bone tissue, such as the
exchange of nutrients and wastes with
the blood
➢ Play an active role in homeostasis by
helping to release Ca from bone tissue
into the blood
4. Osteoclast
➢ “clasts” – to break
➢ Engulf necrotic cells (unprogrammed
form of cell death that occurs in
 response to overwhelming chemical or
physical insult).
➢ Settle on the surfaces of bone
➢ Bone destroying cells- phagocytic
function
➢ Prevents bone from breaking too thick
➢ Huge cells derived from the fusion of as
many as 50 monocytes that are
concentrated in the endosteum
➢ Destruction of bone matrix is part of the
normal development, growth,
maintenance and repair bon
5. Bone Lining Cells
➢ Derived from the osteoblasts that cease
their physiologic activity and flatten out
on the bone surface
➢ Found on the surface of most bones in
the adult skeleton
Bone Markings
A. DEPRESSION AND OPENINGS /CAVITIES
➢ indentations in the grooves of bone
➢ allow the passage of soft tissues
➢ form joint
1. FISSURE
➢ a narrow cleft-like opening between
adjacent parts of bones through which
blood vessels and nerves pass
➢ e.g. Superior Orbital Fissure
2. FORAMEN
➢ an opening thru which blood vessels,
nerves or ligaments pass
➢ e.g. Foramen Magnum, Obturator
foramen
3. MEATUS
➢ a tube like passageway running within a
bone
➢ e.g. External auditory meatus (ear
canal)
4. PARANASAL SINUSES
➢ an air-filled cavity within a bone
connected to the nasal cavity
➢ purpose: give resonance to the voice
➢ e.g. Frontal sinus
5. GROOVES/SULCUS
➢ Furrow/depression that accommodates
a soft structure such as blood vessels,
nerve or tendon
➢ e.g. depression on the anterior surface
of the humerus
6. Fossa
➢ a depression in or on a bone
➢ e.g. olecranon fossa; acetabulum
B. PROCESSES
➢ any prominent projections or
outgrowths that form joints
➢ serve as attachments for ligaments and
tendons
1. Condyle
➢ a smooth, large rounded, articular
prominence
➢ e.g. lower end of femur where it
articulates with the tibia
2. Head ➢ e.g. linea aspera -posterior femur

➢ a rounded articular projection 6. Spinous process

supported on the constricted portion
➢ sharp, slender process
(neck) of a bone
➢ e.g. spines of the vertebrae
➢ e.g. head of femur, head of humerus

3. Facet
6. Epicondyle
➢ a smooth, flat surface
➢ e-g. Superior articular facet of the axis ➢ a prominence above a condyle
ala ➢ e.g. lateral and medial Epicondyle of
humerus and femur

C. PROCESSES TO WHICH TENDONS,

LİGAMENTS AND OTHER CONNECTIVE TISSUES
ATTACHED

1. Tubercle

➢ small rounded process/ projection

➢ e.g. Upper end of the humerus, articular
tubercle

2. Tuberosity

➢ a large, usually rounded protection

➢ e.g. tibial and radial tuberosity, sacral
tuberosity

3. Trochanter

➢ a large, blunt projection found only on

the femur
➢ e.g. greater and lesser trochanter of
the femur

4. Crest

➢ a prominent border or ridge

➢ e.g. illac crest

5. Line

➢ a less prominent ridge than a crest