MODULE 3: REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNER DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION:

Previously in your Child and Adolescent development course, the foundational theories
related to the learner’s development were discussed. This Module aims to help you
think about and review these theories that you have taken up and connects them to
learning.
 FREUD THEORIES

COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY

1. The Id
a. According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the
primary component of personality.
b. The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
c. This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and
primitive behaviors.

2. The Ego
a. According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the
impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
b. The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
c. The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with
reality

3. Superego
a. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.
b. The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we
acquire from our parents and society (our sense of right and wrong).
c. The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

1. Oral Stage

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.

2. Anal Stage

The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control
their bodily needs.

3. Phallic Stage

At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.
 4. Latent Period

Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside
of the family.

5. Genital Stage

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last
throughout the rest of a person's life.

ERIKSON THEORY

8 Psycho-social Stages of Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

Between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant
is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the
child's caregivers.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame

Takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play and other social interactions.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

Takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social
interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

Takes place during the often-turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in
developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and
development for the rest of a person's life.
 PIAGET THEORY

4 Stages of Cognitive Development

1.The Sensorimotor Stage

• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking,
grasping, looking, and listening.

2.The Preoperational Stage

• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from
the perspective of others.

3.The Concrete Operational Stage

• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
• Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete.

4.The Formal Operational Stage

• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems.
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information.

KOHLBERG THEORY

3 Levels and 6 Stages of Moral Development

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

• Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral

development, common in young children, but adults are also capable of
expressing this type of reasoning.
• Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange
stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs.
• Level 2. Conventional Morality
• Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): this stage of the
interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to
social expectations and roles.
 • Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): At this stage of moral development,
people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments.
• Level 3. Postconventional Morality
• Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract
and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for
the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.
• Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is
based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage,
people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict
with laws and rules.

VYGOTSKY THEORY

On Language and Zone of Proximal Development

ON LAGUAGE

Vygotsky had a groundbreaking theory that language was the basis of learning. His
points included the argument that language supports other activities such as reading
and writing. In addition, he claimed that logic, reasoning, and reflective thinking
were all possible as a result of language.

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

The zone of proximal development (ZPD), or zone of potential development, refers

to the range of abilities an individual can perform with the guidance of an expert, but
cannot yet perform on their own.

THE "MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER"

The "more knowledgeable other" is someone who has a higher level of knowledge
than the learner and is able to provide them with instruction during their learning
process.

SCAFFOLDING THEORY

When a child is in their ZPD, an expert will provide them with appropriate assistance
to help them accomplish a new task or skill. Activities, instructions, tools, and
resources that are used to aid in this learning process are known as scaffolding.
 BRONFENBRENNER THEORY

Bio-Ecological System

THE MICROSYSTEM

The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things that have
direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings,
teachers and school peers.

THE MESOSYSTEM

The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not function

independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.

THE EXOSYSTEM

It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which do not themselves contain
the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the microsystems.

THE MACROSYSTEM

Theory that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as
socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity.

THE CHRONOSYSTEM

This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime which
influence development, including major life transitions, and historical events.