Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Acta Ecologica Sinica

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chnaes

Consumption of wild food plants among tribal communities of Pak-Afghan

border, near Bajaur, Pakistan
Syed Abidullah a, Abdur Rauf a, Wajid Zaman b, *, Fazal Ullah c, e, Asma Ayaz f, Fatima Batool g,
Saddam Saqib c, d, *
a
Department of Botany, Abdul Wali Khan University, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Mardan 23200, Pakistan
b
Lushan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jiangxi 332900, China
c
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
d
State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
e
CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
f
State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
g
Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid- i- Azam University Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This survey was conducted to document the distribution, market potential, medicinal properties, and conser­
Wild plants vation status of wild food plants (WFPs) which are consumed by local communities of poor socioeconomic
Human nutrition background, residing near the Pakistan-Afghan border. Data were collected via semi-structured during
Pakistan-Afghan border
2017–2020 and a total of 288 informers were interviewed in a different locality. In this survey, a total of 95 WFPs
Market potential
Ethnomedicinal value
species of 39 families and 58 genera were documented. Among these WFPS, 70% of species are ethno-
medicinally known. August was the peak month for the accessibility of WFPs (i.e., 17%). The most consumed
parts were leaves (37%) and fruit (36%). Plant species of 36 families out of 39 were marketable and reported for
the first time, which was further interrelated with taste, ethnobotanical, ethnomedicinal value, FC, and relative
frequency of citation (RFC). Rhamnaceae and Rosaceae were the dominant families with the highest number of
frequencies of citation (FC) and number of species. The highest FC (77) and RFC (0.267) were calculated for
Ziziphus jujuba. This study presents the market potential and distribution of the WFPs for the first time in a war-
affected zone. These findings would facilitate local people along the Pakistan-Afghan border and researchers to
utilize WFPs to fulfill food requirements. We suggest that further pharmacological and biological assessments of
these plants can contribute to economic prosperity, and increase the dietary diversity of this region.

1. Introduction suggested as a nutritionally superior plant to some cultivated plants

The use of plants by humans is dated back to the start of life on land.
Initially, plants uses were confined to shelter, food and medicine but
with time humans explored the potential of plants for many other pur­
poses. Wild plants have always been important for human nutrition and
other uses [1–3]. Plants that grow without direct human intention and
use for food purposes in various parts of the world are termed WFPs. The
WFP is a basic important source of food among the local community of
the rural population [4–6]. Most of them are used as medicinal and
therapeutic sources around the globe specifically in rural areas [7–10].
Around 75,000 plant species are edible worldwide which has been
[11]. In spite of the rapid increase in agricultural products, about 33% of
rural communities of the hilly areas are living under serious hunger and
starvation situations [12]. As the world population is rising day by day,
food requirements will also increase (70–100%) up to 2050 [13].
Mountainous areas are rich with natural resources and possess consid­
erable WFPs and wild fauna [14–17]. Moreover, previous ethnobotan­
ical reports presented ~7000 species are being consumed by people as
daily food in rural communities [18,19]. Therefore, field documentation
and traditional knowledge of such flora are inevitable in facilitating food
diversification and economic development of poor communities.
Pakistan is one of the few countries on the ecosphere, where a variety

* Corresponding authors at: Lushan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jiangxi 332900, China/ University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing
100049, China
E-mail addresses: shangla123@gmail.com (W. Zaman), fazalbotanist@gmail.com (F. Ullah), asmaayaz@bs.qau.edu.pk (A. Ayaz), saddamsaqib.qau@gmail.com
(S. Saqib).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2021.08.002
Received 30 June 2021; Received in revised form 1 August 2021; Accepted 2 August 2021
Available online 9 August 2021
1872-2032/© 2021 Ecological Society of China. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Syed Abidullah, Acta Ecologica Sinica, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2021.08.002
S. Abidullah et al.
of vegetables and fruit and exhibiting more than 6000 plant species
[20], it pays 18.9% to GDP and captivates 42.3% of the labor force [21].
Pakistan encompassing an area of 10 million hectares constituted with
various climatic zones support the cultivation of different crops and
facilitates 43.5% rural population [21]. Although Pakistan is enriched
with huge biodiversity and various climatic zones but still ranked 11th
in the Food Security Risk Index [22]. World health organization (WHO)
reported that 50% of child deaths occur due to hunger in Pakistan and
Afghanistan [13]. Currently, in most of the areas, some consumers
usually collect WFPs in different sessions and freeze them, to consume
throughout the year [23]. Despite the growing demand, WFPs are
reduced from traditional dishes, which raising serious interest because
of their role in cultural history, and nutraceutical values [24]. Therefore,
local people living in the Pakistan-Afghan border depending on the use
of innate wild plants to fulfill their nutritional requirements [13,25,26].
Information regarding WFPs is poorly documented in the Pakistan-
Afghan border. Very few attempts have been made to explore tradi­
tional plants and their uses in the Northern regions of Pakistan
[13,27,28]. Pakistan-Afghan border is enriched with various WFPs and
local people are also associated with these plants for revenue and food
[29]. Recently Ahmad and Pieroni [13] presented an ethnobotanical
survey of the adjacent areas. But still, there is a dire need to further
explore WFPs of the Pakistan-Afghan border which will not only fulfill
food requirements but will also facilitate the pharmaceutical industry.
Maximum consumption of wild vegetables and fruit would result in
biodiversity loss due to unawareness in local communities. Therefore
the listing of these WFPs along with their distribution record, market
potential, and medicinal properties are essential for conservation pur­
poses. We hypothesized that WFPs distributed in rural areas where no
economic means are available could be a valuable source of economic
and nutrition for the local communities. So, the following aims and
objectives were examined in this study (i) evaluation of the market
potential, medicinal applications, and conservation status and distri­
bution of wild fruit and vegetables of tehsil Nawagai, district Bajaur
settled near Pakistan-Afghan border, (ii) to document local knowledge
related to WFPs and revitalization of food traditions among the people of
Pakistan-Afghan border (iii) to examine seasonal availability of
important wild fruit and vegetables near Pakistan-Afghan border
regions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
Bajaur is a part of the merged federally administrated tribal area
(FATA) located near the Pakistan-Afghan border as shown in Fig. 1. The
area is comprised of mountains with great diversity and unfertile slopes
sharing its borders with Afghanistan in the West, Mohmand district in
the South, Lower Dir in the North, and Pankora river in the East. The
climate is arid and semi-arid having both winter (5–10 ◦ C) and summer
seasons (23–36 ◦ C). The area is further divided into two subdivisions and
seven tehsils. The local area is populated by Pashtuns. According to the
2017 survey, the population of the district is 1,093,684 www.pbscensus.
gov.pk. The main source of income is agriculture. The major tribes are
Tarkalani (83.35%), followed by Uthman Khel and Mohmand. Many
people have been migrated to different parts of the country due to un
availably of jobs and income resources.
2.2. Climate, vegetation, and ethnic composition
Geographically the district Bajaur is now adjusting in Malakand di­
vision due to climatic factors in recent years. The agricultural areas
2
Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx
receive about 800 mm of average rainfall per annum (http://fata.gov.
pk). The dominant tribe of the said area is Salarzai and Tarkanni
which is subdivided into different small tribes. Wheat and Maize are
commonly cultivated crops. District Bajaur is the 2nd largest Afghan
refugee resident area after the Kurram district [13] and the residents are
mostly dependent on WFPs due to lack of income resources.
2.3. Samples and data collection
From March 2018 to March 2020, wild vegetable and fruit samples
were collected twice in a season from the study area by the method of
Hossain and Rahman [30]. The folk uses were recorded by interviewing
local experts. In this survey, a total of 288 individuals including 239
males and 49 females of different families were randomly selected for
interviews who were aware of the indigenous uses of plants. The survey
was conducted on individuals of the local population, aged from 20 to
65 years and above. The interview was conducted in a social environ­
ment and local language (Pashto) following the ethics of the Interna­
tional Society of Ethnobiology (https://www.ethnobiology.net/).
Ethno-botanical records were collected by the methods of Galabuzi,
Agea, Fungo and Kamoga [31]. Fieldwork was consisting of plant
collection, photography, and data documentation [32]. Questionnaires
were consisting of two portions, where the first portion was about per­
sonal information like age, level of education, and gender of informers,
whereas the second portion was about the WFPs uses for primary food
sources and their application.
The collected WFPs were taxonomically identified by following flora
of Pakistan www.eflora.com, where Latin name and family names were
confirmed by http://www.theplantlist.org and tropics, www.tropicos.
org. Specimens of each wild vegetable and fruit were submitted to the
herbarium of Sherangal University, Dir upper, KP, Pakistan.
2.4. Data processing
Collected information was evaluated through graphic statistics to
define more noticeable kinds of species. Percentage and bar charts were
applied to summarize the data using Excel® spreadsheets software
(2016). For the variation in the table and comparative contribution on
plant diversity and variation in wild vegetables and fruit indigenous
knowledge of the local ethnic community, pivot tables were used. U tests
for self-determining samples were conducted to create the distribution
of Frequency of citation values among different groups [13]. FC was
determined by the method of [33] and the Relative Frequency of citation
(RFC) was determined by using the following equation [34,35].
RFC = FC ÷ N 0 ≤ RFC < 1
Where “FC” is the number of sources that referred to the species for
specific uses and “N” is the total number of the interviewer participated
during the study.
3. Results
3.1. Taxonomic diversity
In this documentation, Botanical data of WFPs including taxon,
family, local name, habit, parts used, collection sites, collecting session,
collectors, and mode of preparation are reported in (Table 1). In this
study about 95 wild edible vegetables and fruit plants belonging to 58
genera, and 39 families were collected from the selected study area as
cited in Table 1 and Fig. 2. Frequency-based citation values determined
that the leading family was Rhamnaceae followed by Rutaceae and
Sapotaceae. Whereas the remaining families with the high frequency of
 S. Abidullah et al.
Table 1
List of wild vegetables and fruits documented from the study zone.
S. Taxon, Family and Local Names Habit Plant Part (s) Collection site (s) Availability Life form Collecting session FC RFC Collectors Mode of preparation
No voucher specimen No Used (s)

1 Alliaria petiolate (M.B) Trenji Herb Leaves and Near water or in Rare Biennial January–March 13 0.045 Women The flower is grand in the woody pot
cav.& grande flower the edge of streams and men to form pest then add sugar and put
Brassicaceae 34/S.A/ again in woody pots for 10 days then
2017 use as a delicious dished called “Gull
Qand”. Sometimes this dish as used as
a traditional drug for unknown use.
The leaves are us as a traditional dish
called “sagh” like the above mention
procedure.
2 Allium griffithianum Ogaki Herb Leaves and Open area and near Rare Perennial March & April 09 0.031 Women The bulbs and leaves are eaten with
Boiss underground graveyard bread also cook in maze bread, it’s
Amaryllidaceae 47/S. bulbs also uses for making Msala a
A/2017 traditional spice for cooking. The
leaves are grand to make powder
which is mixed with other blends to
make Masla a traditional spice that is
used for cooking purposes.
3 Alnus nitida (Spach) Shatooth Tree Fruits Open area Rare October 21 0.072 Man Fruits are eaten in raw form
Endl. Betulaceae 85/S.
A/2017
4 Amaranthus caudatus Kerkari wali Herb Leaves Waste area Rare Annual July- august 02 0.006 Women Cook with other wild vegetables as a
Linn Amaranthaceae Chelwayi mixture
65/S.A/2017
5 A. hybridus Linnaeus Chelwayi Herb Leave & young Wasteland and Common Annual August and September 18 0.062 Women Cook with another vegetable which is
Amaranthaceae 77/S. shoot garden as well as and kid locally called “Sarani sagh”.
3

A/2017 waste ground

6 A. spinosus Linnaeus Chelwayi Herb Leave & young Wasteland and Common Annual August and September 18 0.062 Women Cook with other vegetables by mixing
Amaranthaceae 09/S. shoot ground and kids different wild vegetables which is
A/2017 locally called “sagh”.
7 Amaranthus viridis L. Chelwayi Herb Leave & young Wasteland and Common Annual August and September 18 0.062 Women Cook with other vegetables as a
Amaranthaceae 52/S. shoot ground and kids “sagh”.
A/2017
8 Anethum sowa Roxb. Khaga Herb Seeds and it the edge of filed Rare Perennial January – December 23 0.079 Man, Used in salad as well as eaten directly.
Apiaceae 16/S.A/ innaly leaves and area near women, In some areas, it is used for the
2017 human settlements and kids formation of msala for flavor in
different dishes.
9 Artemisia vulgaris Keng gaya Herb Leaves Bushy vegetation Common Perennial March 15 0.052 Women Cook like vegetable
Linnaeus Asteraceae
63/S.A/2017
10 Asparagus officnalis L. Tendori Shrub Young stem, Bushy vegetation Common Perennial August & March 17 0.059 Kids men & Young shoots and buds are fried in gee
Asparagaceae 19/S.A/ buds, shoot, women or milk and then eaten with bread.
2017 and branch
11 Berberis calliobotrys Khwari Shrub Fruits Wild forest and on Common Annual April–June 08 0.027 Men Fruits are directly consumed. The

Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

Aitch. Berberidaceae the top of hills fruits are used for making juice.
33/S.A/2017
12 Berberis jaeschkeana Khwari Shrub Fruits Wild forest and on Common Annual April–June 10 0.034 Men -do-
Schneid the top of hills
Berberidaceae 96/S.
A/2017
13 Berberis lycium Royle. Khwari Shrub Fruits Wild forest and on Common Annual April–June 13 0.045 Men -do-
Berberidaceae the top of hills
66/S.A/2017
14 Khwari Shrub Fruits Common Annual April–June 05 0.017 Men -do-
(continued on next page)
 S. Abidullah et al.
Table 1 (continued )
S. Taxon, Family and Local Names Habit Plant Part (s) Collection site (s) Availability Life form Collecting session FC RFC Collectors Mode of preparation
No voucher specimen No Used (s)

Berberis Wild forest and on

pseudumbellata Parker the top of hills
in Kew Bull.
Berberidaceae 01/S.
A/2017
15 Beta vulgaris Linnaeus – Herb Leaves and root Grasslands Common Perennial and March–June 09 0.031 Women Its cook like wild vegetable
Chenopodiacea 23/S. annual
A/2017
16 Cannabis sativa Linn Bangh Herb Leaves, young It the slope of Common Annual March and September 14 0.048 Man The young buds with unmatured seeds
Cannabaceae 57/S.A/ buds, and seeds mountain and open and leaves are grand for 5 mint in the
2017 area as well as stone plate. Them the water is poured
moorland field and the scum remedies are moved to
another container containing grinded
peanuts, laachi, poppy seeds, and
Almonds. All the scum is mixed in
milk and snow, then drank are used
for Starch. It’s also used for the
formation of weed.
17 Capsella bursa-pastoris. Bambessa/ Herb Leaves Open area Common Annual Jun- March 07 0.024 Women The leaves and flowering tops are
(L.) Medic. alam cooked as vegetables
Brasssicaceae 77/S.A/
2017
18 Caralluma edulis Pamanki Herb Tuber Rocky Barren Land Rare Perennial December–February 23 0.079 Men The tubers are grand for 4–6 mint and
(Edgew.) Hook water is poured out into a separate
Asclepiadaceae 45/S. dish and the froth and remedies are
A/2017 moved to another container
4

containing ghee with fried onions,

menthes, tomatoes, and many more
than cook for 30 mint.
19 Caralluma tuberculata Pamanki Herb Tuber Rocky Barren Land Rare Perennial December–February 23 0.079 Men The tubers are grand with stone until
N.E. Brown appearing the scum over the surface
Asclepiadaceae then the scum is poured into another
29/S.A/2017 container, and the reaming part is
cook in fried ghee, garlic, onion, and
tomato for 30 mints.
20 Carthamus oxycantha Azghibotay Herb Seeds Road side and open Common Annuals or May–August 10 0.034 Kids Fruits or seeds are directly consumed
M. Bieb. Asteraceae area perennial
90/S.A/2017
21 Celtis australis auct. Tagh Tree Fruit Roade side and Common Annual August–October 24 0.083 Kids Fruits are directly consumed
Non L. open area
Cannabaceae 02/S.A/
2017
22 Chenopodium album L. Sarmai Herb Leave and shoot The waste land and Common Annual August–March 0.076 Women, -do-
Chenopodiaceae near human 22 man, and

Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

86/S.A/2017 settlement as well kid
as in the open field
23 Chenopodium Sor sarmai Herb Leave and shoot Wasteland Rare Annual August & March 23 0.079 Women Cook in another wild vegetable like
polyspermum L. A. officnalis, S. conoidea,
Chenopodiaceae C. polyspermum, L. oradtus, P. oleracea,
62/S.A/2017 R. hastatus, etc. which is locally called
“Sarani Sagh”.
24 Cotoneaster Kharewa Tree or Fruits It the side of Rare Annual December 05 0.017 Kids Mature fruits are eaten in raw form
nummularia Fisch. et woody foothills
Mey. shrub
(continued on next page)
 S. Abidullah et al.
Table 1 (continued )
S. Taxon, Family and Local Names Habit Plant Part (s) Collection site (s) Availability Life form Collecting session FC RFC Collectors Mode of preparation
No voucher specimen No Used (s)

Rosaceae
06/S.A/2017
25 Crataegus sp. (wild) – Tree Fruit Forest Rare Annual – 03 0.010 Kids -do-
Rosaceae 30/S.A/
2017
26 Cuminum cyminum Zera Herb Fruits and seeds Near house it the Rare Annual 10 0.034 Women, -do-
Linn (wild) bank of the wheat terrestrial man and
Umbelliferae 89/S.A/ field kids
2017
27 Debregeasia salicifolia Khar lewa Shrub or Fruits In stream where Common Annual March and June 04 0.013 Kids -do-
(D.Don) Urticaceae small tree water is running
43/S.A/2017
28 Diospyros lotus Blanco. Thor Amlok Tree Fruit Lowland Rare Annual September–December 30 0.104 Men and -do-
Ebenaceae 18/S.A/ kid
2017
29 Discurainia Sophia Jenjar Shrub Seeds In open area Rare Annual March 09 0.031 Women Seeds are collects in spots and use as
Brassicaceae 44/S.A/ Sashi in drinking for different
2017 purposes.
30 Dryopteris Gonghi Herb Young leave & Near waterfall in Rare – January–March 15 0.052 Man Cook in fried onion and tomato and
serratodentata (Bedd.) aerial shoot Stream then add some water until the water is
Hayata fully absorbed, it the end add some
Dryopteridaceae 10/ flavor and Spice, etc.
S.A/2017
31 Duchesnea indica Belmanghai Shrub Fruit Slopes & High Common Perennial March 17 0.059 Kids The fruits are directly consumed
(Andr.) Focke mountain
Rosaceae 08/S.A/ valleys
5

2017
32 Ficus carica L. Inzer Tree Fruit Wild forest and Common Annual/ August 33 0.114 Kids and -do-
Moraceae 36/S.A/ area near villager perennial man
2017 settlements
33 Ficus palmata Forssk. Jngli injer Tree Fruits Slope and wild Common Perennial June–August 35 0.121 Kids and The mature fruits are directly
Moraceae 54/S.A/ forest also grow men consumed and the young leaf is some
2017 around villages villager fried in cooking oil or ghee
with fried onions and tomatoes.
34 Foeniculum vulgare Kaga Herb Seeds leaves Near villager Common Perennial October 45 0.156 Women Fruit are used as directly consumed
Mill. Umbelliferae 92/ and flowers settlement and man and leaves are us as flavor in different
S.A/2017 dishes
35 Fragaria nubicola Belmenghai Herb Fruit Near the water side Common Perennial August–September 18 0.062 Kids the fruit is directly consumed
(Hook.f.) Lindl and highly
Rosaceae 59/S.A/ hedgerow
2017
36 Hypericum dyeri Chi boty Shrub Leaves Slope and over the Rare Perennial and August to September 03 0.010 Man Fresh leaves are used as a tea
Rehder Guttiferae 50/ top of the hill Annual
S.A/2017

Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

37 Hypericum Chi boty Shrub Leaves Over the top of hill Rare Annual March 03 0.010 Man For the formation of tea
oblongifolium Choisy
Guttiferae 46/S.A/
2017
38 Hypericum perforatum Chi boty Shrub Leaves Slope Rare Perennial April – June 03 0.010 Elder man Fresh leaves are used as tea
L.
Guttiferae 49/S.A/
2017
39 Lathyrus odoratus L. Chelogai Herb Fruit and pod Grass land Rare Annual May and July 03 0.010 Kids Fruits are eaten in raw form
(wild)
(continued on next page)
 S. Abidullah et al.
Table 1 (continued )
S. Taxon, Family and Local Names Habit Plant Part (s) Collection site (s) Availability Life form Collecting session FC RFC Collectors Mode of preparation
No voucher specimen No Used (s)

Fabaceae 37/S.A/
2017
40 Malva neglecta Wallr. Penderak Herb Leave, young Waste forest Rare Perennial or August & March 44 0.152 Women & Cook as a separate vegetables or
Malvaceae 68/S.A/ shoot biannual kids combined with other vegetables
2017
41 Mentha arvensis L. Phodena Herb Leave It the edge of a Rare Perennial February- march 23 0.079 Man, Used as a salad or use in a mixed salad
(wild) water stream and women, called ‫ﭺﭦﻥﯼ‬/Sauce for better test
Lamiaceae 32/S.A/ field and kids
2017
42 Mentha longifolia Host. Venaly Herb Leave It the edge of the Common Perennial December–March 45 0.156 Man, and Used as a salad and also dried in sun
Lamiaceae 49/S.A/ water stream women then grand with hand and later on its
2017 use in lassi sometime its use in boiled
corn cob/ears of maze fruits for flavor
43 Monotheca buxifolia Gurguri Tree Fruit Olive forest and Common Annual June–July 65 0.225 Men, Mature fruit eaten as in raw form
(Falc.) A. DC. hills women and
Sapotaceae 03/S.A/ kids
2017
44 Morus alba L. Spen tooth Tree Fruit Open area and near Common Annual April 45 0.156 Kids and Directly consumed
Moraceae 24/S.A/ houses where man
2017 villager site
45 Morus laevigata Wall. Tooth Trees or Fruit Mountain forests Common Annual April 23 0.079 Kids and Mature fruits are eaten in raw form
ex Brandis Moraceae shrubs man
13/S.A/2017
46 Morus nigra Linnaeus Tor thoth Tree Fruit Open area and near Common Annual April 12 0.041 Kids and Mature fruits are eaten in raw form
Moraceae 61/S.A/ houses where man
2017 villager site
6

47 Myrtus communis L. Manrho Shrub Leaves Bushy vegetation Rare Annual January–March 38 0.131 Man 3 or 4 fresh or dried leaves are used as
Myrtaceae 80/S.A/ a flavor in milk gee and tea or may be
2017 used as anti-bacterial agents.
48 Nasturtium officinale R. Termerha Herb Leave & young Rooted in water Rare Perennial February 22 0.076 Women Vegetable
Br shoots over the lack and man
Brassicaceae 78/S.A/
2017
49 Olea ferruginea Royle Khona Tree Leave Beside the Common Annual December & October 10 0.034 Kids Mature fruits are eaten in raw form
Oleacesae 40/S.A/ mountain slope
2017
50 Oxalis corniculata L. Taroki Herb Leaf Open area and Common Annual March 05 0.017 Women, Cook in different vegetables and
Oxalidaceae 22/S.A/ grass forest as well man & kids sometimes its use in Chatni ‫ﭺﭦﻥﯼ‬. It’s
2017 as slop area also used in many locally prepared
dishes.
51 Papaver rhoeas L. Reday Herb Leaf and bud Open filed and Common Annual March–April 06 0.020 Women It cooks with other wild vegetables
Papaveraceae 81/S.A/ wheat field especially with S. conoidea, P. major,
2017 and many more.
52 Plantago himalaica Ghwi jebai Herb Leave Fertile land Rare Perennial August 24 0.083 Women Leaves and shoots are fried with ghee,

Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

Pilger onions, and tomatoes for one and ½
Plantaginaceae 69/S. hour and then eaten like a delicious
A/2017 dish.
53 Plantago lagopus L. Ghwi jebai Herb Leaves Field and open Common Annual January–August 24 0.083 Women Young leaves are cook in ghee with
Plantaginaceae vegetation fried onions and tomatoes.
25/S.A/2017
54 Plantago lanceolata Ghwi jebaii Herb Leaves Grassland, also a Common Perennial April–September 24 0.083 Women Young leaves are cook in ghee with
Linn common weed of fried onions and tomatoes.
Plantaginaceae 93/S. lawns and
A/2017
(continued on next page)
 S. Abidullah et al.
Table 1 (continued )
S. Taxon, Family and Local Names Habit Plant Part (s) Collection site (s) Availability Life form Collecting session FC RFC Collectors Mode of preparation
No voucher specimen No Used (s)

cultivated ground
and fertile land
55 Plantago major L. Ghwi jebi Herb Leaf Lawns and Common Herbaceous August–December 24 0.083 Women Boiled in water about 30 mints and
Plantaginaceae pastures, and often perennial and kid them pure into another continuer and
26/S.A/2017 in waste places as plant remove the water, then cook about 20
well mints in fried ghee with fried onions,
garlic, and tomatoes.
56 Polygonum aviculare Bandakay Herb Leave Slopes and Common Annual August 03 0.010 Women Young fresh leaves including young
Bert. ex Meisn. Ridges shoots are fried with ghee, onions,
Polygonaceae garlic, and tomato for ½ hour until
12/S.A/2017 boiled and then eaten in meals. It may
also use in Sagh.
57 Portulaca oleracea L. Zangali Herb Young branch Wet and dry place Common Annual Fabray to May and 26 0.090 Women The stem and leaves are cook like a
Portulacaceae 41/S. warkhari near a stone September and man vegetable in the form of Sagh and
A/2017 eaten.
58 Punica granatum L. Anar Tree Fruits Slope and near Rare Annual May – December 14 0.048 Man, kids Fruits are directly eaten
(wild) (negori) villager and women
Punicaceae 17/S.A/
2017
59 Pyrus pashia Buch- Tang ghoo Tree Fruits Forest and near Rare Annual June–August 21 0.072 Kids Mature fruits are directly consumed in
Ham. ex D. Don. small streams or some area the fruits are dried in sun
Rosaceae 31/S.A/ swamp areas and then eaten in raw form
2017
60 Pyrus pyraster (L.) Tangha Tree Fruit Near water stream Rare Annual July–September 24 0.083 Man & kid The mature fruit are eaten in raw form
(wild)
Rosaceae 53/S.A/
7

2017
61 Quercus baloot Griff. Toor Tree Fruit/Seed High mountain Common Annual December 07 0.024 Man Mature fruits are collected and they
Fagaceae 5/S.A/2017 pherghei valley put in ember for some time and then
removed the shell and eaten in raw
form
62 Quercus dilalata Lindl. Pher ghee Tree Fruit /Seed High mountain Common Annual December 09 0.031 Man Mature fruits are collected and they
Ex royle valley put in ember for some time and then
Fagaceae 76/S.A/ removed the shell and eaten in raw
2017 form
63 Quercus ilex L. Pherghei Tree Fruit/Seed High mountain Common Annual December 12 0.041 Man Mature fruits are collected and they
Fagaceae 88/S.A/ valley put in ember for some time and then
2017 removed the shell and eaten in raw
form
64 Ranunculus hederaceus Termera Herb Leaves & young Over the water Common Perennial April- august 27 0.093 Man, and Cook as a vegetable (Sagh)
Linnaeus stem stream and pound women
Ranunculaceae 15/S.
A/2017
65 Raphanus Zangali moli Herb Leaf and seeds Common field or in Rare Annual January–March 12 0.041 Women, A leaf is a cook with sagh as well as

Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

raphanistrum L. weed field near man, and eaten as a salad while the seeds are
Brassicaceae 58/S.A/ villages settlement kid used for the extraction of cooking oil
2017 which was used for cooking as well as
for different purposes
66 Rubas fruiticosus Agg Qorech Shrub Fruit Bushy vegetation Rare Perianal October & December 15 0.052 Man Fruits are directly consumed
Rosaceae 72/S.A/
2017
67 Rubus ellipticus Smith Qorech Shrub Fruit On the edges of Rare Biennial July–December 14 0.048 Man -do-
Rosaceae 27/S.A/ calcareous soils
2017
(continued on next page)
 S. Abidullah et al.
Table 1 (continued )
S. Taxon, Family and Local Names Habit Plant Part (s) Collection site (s) Availability Life form Collecting session FC RFC Collectors Mode of preparation
No voucher specimen No Used (s)

68 Rubus sanctus Qorech Shrub Fruit On the edges of Rare Biennial July–December 17 0.059 Man -do-
Schreber Rosaceae calcareous soils
38/S.A/2017
69 Rubus ulmifolius Schott Qorch Shrub Fruit On the edges of Rare Biennial July–December 12 0.041 Man -do-
Rosaceae 21/S.A/ calcareous soils
2017
70 Rumex dentatus Shal khay Herb Leave Moist valleys and Rare Annual February–March 45 0.156 Women Leaves are fried with ghee, onions,
Linnaeus Mountain slopes and tomato for ½ hour until the ghee
Polygonaceae 91/S.A/ seems on top. The leaves and shoots
2017 are collectively boiled for 1 h and
them the extra water is removed, the
mixtures are them grand with boiled
tomato’s, potatoes’, onions, and many
more mixture to form a semisolid and
liquid substance. Them these
substances are boiled in ghee to form
Chapli Kebab which was eaten with
bread.
71 Rumex hastatus Peter. Tarokay Herb Leaves Shrubby mountain Common Perianal January–September 43 0.149 Kids Young fresh leaves are used as a
Polygonaceae 20/S.A/ vegetation chutney in different dishes like
2017 Pekawra (beignets in Afghanistan)
The leaves are used as a traditional
local Pekawra (local quiches) and
chatni ‫ﭺﭦﻥﯼ‬, also use in small
quantity in traditional sagh.
72 Salvia moorcroftiana Khor ghwag Herb Stem Mountain and Common Perennial March–April 42 0.145 Kids Remove the bark from Young stem
8

Wall. ex Benth. waste land and eaten in raw form

Lamiaceae 74/S.A/
2017
73 Silene conoidea L. Menghothii Herbs Young apical Mostly in the wheat Common Annual February–March 14 0.048 Kid and Boiled in water about 30 mints and
Caryophyllaceae 84/ regions field and some women them pure into another continuer and
S.A/2017 places in the grassy remove the water, then cook about for
area 20 mints in fried ghee with fried
onions, garlic, and tomatoes.
74 Sisymbrium irio L. Owray Herb Leaves and fruit open woodlands, Rare Annual August 32 0.111 Man, and Vegetable
Brassicaceae 82/S.A/ shrublands and women
2017 vegetation near
watercourses
75 Solanum anguivi Lam Kamacho Herb Fruit and leaf Mountain common Annual October- Number 46 0.159 Women Cook like vegetable
Solanaceae 95/S.A/ man and
2017 kids
76 Solanum nigrum Acerb. Kamacho Herb Young shoots Wasteland & Common Annual October- Number 46 0.159 Women Leaves and shoots are boiled with
ex Dunal. fruits and shrubby man and water in a cooking pat for ½ hour.
Solanaceae 2877/S.A/ leaves vegetation kids Then they moved to another dish pat

Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

2017 containing ghee with firstly prepared
fried onions & tomato. Kept on the fire
for about 1 h. This is then eaten in a
meal with family. The mature fruits
are directly consumed in most of the
area.
77 Stellaria media (L.) Spen Herb Leaves Wheat and grassy Common Annual January–March 27 0.093 Kids and Its combine with other wild vegetable
Caryophyllaceae 87/ sterrgay field women and uses in the traditional diet. Leaves
S.A/2017 and shoots are also cooked in the form
of the above mention procedure.
(continued on next page)
 S. Abidullah et al.
Table 1 (continued )
S. Taxon, Family and Local Names Habit Plant Part (s) Collection site (s) Availability Life form Collecting session FC RFC Collectors Mode of preparation
No voucher specimen No Used (s)

78 Thlaspi arvense L. Alam Herb Leave Waste land Common Annual March 10 0.034 Women Cook like other vegetables mention in
Brassicaceae 83/S.A/ the table.
2017
79 Trianthema – Herb Leave Slope and open Common Perennial March–August 23 0.079 Women Us as a vegetable (Sagh) as well as
portulacastrum ground cook like meat
Linnaeus
Aizoaceae 48/S.A/
2017
80 Trigonella foenum- Shpeshthy Herb Whole plant Open ground Common Annual August 32 0.111 Women Young leaves of fenugreek (common
graecum Sm. name) with young shoots are cook in a
Papilionaceae 51/S. saucepan like other vegetables.
A/2017
81 Tulipa clusiana DC. Ghan tool Herb Bulb Waste land Common Perennial February–March 02 0.006 Kid Bulb are directly consumed in very
Liliaceae 42/S.A/ rare area.
2017
82 Un identified plant Zenki Herb Seeds/ fruits In the vegetation of Rare Annual August 13 0.045 Man, and Use in different, dishes like, rice and
73/S.A/2017 indegofera and kids many more dishes which were cooks
Isodon rugosus in the kitchen for flavors
species.
83 Un identified plants Kheza Herb Leaf Over the top of Rare Annual February–March 01 0.003 Man Cut into pieces and cook like
35/S.A/2017 mountain vegetables
84 Urtica dioica Vell. Sezonkay Herb Leaves Near stream Rare Perennial May 25 0.086 Man Leaves with young shoots are fried in
Urticaceae 94/S.A/ ghee with onions, garlic, and tomatoes
2017 for ½ hour until the ghee seems on the
surface and then eaten with a cookout.
85 Vicia cracca Linnaeus Arwarhi Herb Fruit Wasteland Common Perennial March–April 05 0.017 Kids Pods are fried in ghee with salts and
9

Fabaceae 60/S.A/ then eaten with tea or consumed

2017 directly
86 Vicia monantha Retz Arwarhi Herb Fruit Wasteland Common Annual March–April 04 0.013 Kids -do-
Fabaceae 58/S.A/
2017
87 Vicia sativa Linn Arwarhi Herb Fruit Waste land and Common Annual March–April 04 0.013 Kids -do-
Fabaceae 55/S.A/ grass land
2017
88 Vitis jacquemontii Zangali Shrubby Fruits Mountain Rare – June 03 0.010 Man Fruits are directly consumed
Parker (wild graps) kwar climbers vegetation
Vitaceae 39/S.A/2017
89 Zanthoxylum armatum Dambara Tree and Fruit Mountain Forest Common Annual June–September 67 0.232 Kids, The mature fruit are eaten with bread
Druce. Shrub and slop women and and it’s also us in ‫ﭺﭦﻥﯼ‬/Sauce a
Rutaceae 14/S.A/ men traditional dish. Also, the young and
2017 mature fruits are fried with natural
(desi) ghee and add green chilies, this
is then eaten with bread. It may also
use in sauce/ ‫ﭺﭦﻥﯼ‬, the fruits are also

Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

eaten with bread.
90 Ziziphus jujuba Lam. Merkhanry Tree Fruits Busy vegetation Common Annual September 70 0.243 Kids and Fruits are eaten in raw form
Rhamnaceae 04/S.A/ man
2017
91 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Berrha Tree Fruits Open area and Rare Annual May – July 77 0.267 Kids and -do-
Rhamnaceae 70/S.A/ /shrub desert man
2017
92 Ziziphus mauritiana Berrha Tree Fruits Open area Rare Annual Jun 56 0.194 Kids and -do-
Lam Rhamnaceae 67/ man
S.A/2017
(continued on next page)
S. Abidullah et al. Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

citation values included Lamiaceae, Polygonaceae, Solanaceae, Umbel­

the pure extract are mixed with sugar

different medicinal applications. Fruit

then drink like a juice which is use for
poured out into another sauce pan and

juice in summer. Fruit are also directly

liferae, Lamiaceae, and Malvaceae (Fig. 2).

mints and mixed with salts and then

Fruits are boiling in water; the extra
Fruits are boiled in sauce pan which

Fruits are boiling in water about 20

container and the pure extract are
mixed with sugar and drink like a
water is poured out into another
contain water; the extra water is
3.2. Demographic characteristics of informants

are also directly consumed

Mode of preparation

In this research work overall, 288 informants were interviewed. The

eaten in raw form.

percentage of indigenous people was high (66% = 190) following shop
keepers (34% = 98). All informants were divided into five different age

consumed
groups ranging from 20 to 30, 30–40, 40–50, 55–65, and 65–80 years
according to a standard questionnaire method (Table 2). Among these
people, the majority were men (83%), between 65 and 80 years old.
Based on training, indigenous learning regarding the utilization of plants
women and

women and

is more overwhelming among unskilled individuals (23%) and this in­

Collectors

formation is diminishing in exceptionally instructed classes (10%).

Men,

Men,

Kids
kids

kids
(s)

3.3. Evaluation criteria assessment

0.1180
0.239

0.232
RFC

The taste of 95 WFPs species was documented for the first time of
WFPs from district Bajaur. According to the survey, the taste of wild
FC

69

67

34

vegetables and fruit was maximum used (29%) followed by used but not
common (26%), rarely used (25%), and normally used (20%) (Table 3).
The ethnobotanical value of known plants was high i.e., 70% whereas
Collecting session

August–October

August–October

May–November

unknown was recorded 30%. The use frequency for broadly or daily used
plants was highest (36%) followed by frequently used plants which were
27%. About 58% of wild vegetables and fruit plants are distributed in the
maximum region of the study area whereas 25% of them are found in
certain areas while 17% are allocated inaccessible regions which is
almost the same as the previous research work [13,36]. According to the
community status, 55% are common and 37% are rare (Table 3).
Life form

Biannual
Annual

Annual

3.4. Seasonal availability of WFPs

Availability

The seasonal survey of WFPs demonstrates that August 17% (24

Common

Common

Common

species) highest followed by December 12% (18 species). Similarly,

October and November were the lowest collection months in which only
a few plant species have been reported (Fig. 3). Overall, most of the
plant’s species are obtained during all sessions.
Collection site (s)

Bushy vegetation

Bushy vegetation

Bushy mountain
vegetation

3.5. The market value of WFPs

To determine the market value of WFPs, we surveyed a local market

and a central market i.e. Peshawar. We observed that Caralluma edulis
Plant Part (s)

(Edgew.) Hook (Pamanki) is one of the most important medicinal plants

that is under sale in the market for different purposes. The market survey
also showed that the current prices of Zanthoxylum armatum Druce
Fruits

Fruits

Fruits
Used

(Dambara) are 250 Pkr. per Kg and Berberis lycium Royle. (Khwari) juice
120 Pkr per glass is sold in different markets of the district Bajaur
including the market of Peshawar (Table 4). Our results further
Shrub
Habit

demonstrated that A. hybridus Linnaeus (Chelwayi), A. spinosus Linnaeus

Tree

Tree

(Chelwayi) A. viridis L. (Chelwayi), Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Hook

(Pamanki) C. tuberculata N.E. Brown, Cuminum cyminum Linn (wild)
Local Names

Merkhanry

Merkhanry

(Zera), and Malva neglecta Wallr. (Penderak) are highly known wild
Ghwndi

edible plant species by all age groups for their socio-economic

Elanai

implications.
voucher specimen No

Rhamnaceae 11/S.A/

Rhamnaceae 07/S.A/

Rhamnaceae 64/S.A/
Ziziphus nitida Roxb.

3.6. Growth form of the WFPs

Ziziphus nummularia
Taxon, Family and

(Burm.f.) Wight &

Ziziphus oxyphylla
Table 1 (continued )

The growth form results indicated that more than half plants were
herbs (54%) while other were shrubs (22%) and trees were 17% (Fig. 4).
Edgew.

Trees or shrubs were recorded up to 4% while climbers, shrubby

2017

2017

2017
Arn.

climbers, and shrubby trees indicated 1% use in the region. Our results
agree with the common pattern of herbs, shrubs, and trees dominance
No

93

94

95
S.

reported in various WFPs inventories in other countries [7,37,38].

10
S. Abidullah et al. Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Map of the study area of district Bajaur. The area comprises most parts of district Bajaur and some of the district Mohmand near Pak- Afghan border on the
west. These are used to be parts of FATA (Federally Administered Tribal Area) but recently merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.

Fig. 2. Taxonomic diversity of wild food plants (WFPs) reported in the study area at Pakistan-Afghan border in district Bajaur.

11
S. Abidullah et al. Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2
The demographic data of informants including their education, age, gender.
S/No Demographic parameter Demographic categories Number of persons Percentage (%)

1 Informant category Shop keepers 98 34%

Indigenous people 190 66%
2 Gender Male 239 83%
Female 49 17%
3 Age 20–30 21 07%
30–40 45 16%
40–50 60 21%
55–65 78 27%
65–80 & above 84 29%
4 Education Illiterate 66 23%
5 years of education 47 16%
8 years of education 60 21%
10 years of education 51 18%
12 years of education 34 12%
14 years of education or above 30 10%

Table 3
Diversity of WFPs among evaluation criteria of the study area.
S. no Assessment parameter Sub criteria Assignment percentage (%) Correlation with a market value

1 Taste Maximum used 29% High

Normally used 20% High
Used but not common 26% General
Rarely used 25% Low
2 Ethno-botanical value Known 70% High
Unknown 30% Low
3 Use frequency (UF) Broadly used or almost daily used 36% low
Frequently used 27% General
Occasionally used 20% General
4 Distribution area Rarely used 17% Low
Most region 58% High
Certain region 25% General
Remote region 17% High
5 Community status Common 55% General
Rare 37% High

Fig. 3. Seasonal availability based on collection and consumption within one year of WFPs at Pakistan-Afghan border in district Bajaur.

12
S. Abidullah et al. Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 4
Market potential of WFPs based on survey of different markets along Pakistan-Afghan border in district Bajaur and Peshawar.
Taxon and Family Local Name Habit Marketable parts Age groups Previously reported as WFPs/
marketed vegetable

Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. Betulaceae Shahtooth Tree Fruit Man Yes
Amaranthus caudatus Linn Amaranthaceae Kerkari wali Herb Leaves Man No
Chelwayi
A. hybridus Linnaeus Chelwayi Herb Leave & young shoot Man, and kid No
Amaranthaceae
A. spinosus Linnaeus Amaranthaceae Chelwayi Herb Leave & young shoot Man, and kids No
Amaranthus viridis L. Chelwayi Herb Leave & young shoot Man, and kids No
Amaranthaceae
Berberis lycium Royle. Khwari Shrub Fruit and juice Men Yes
Berberidaceae
Berberis pseudumbellataParker in Kew Bull. Khwari Shrub Fruit and juice Men Yes
Berberidaceae
Cannabis sativa Linn Bangh Herb Seeds Man No
Cannabaceae
Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Hook Pamanki Herb Tuber Men Yes
Asclepiadaceae
Caralluma tuberculata N.E. Brown Pamanki Herb Tuber Men Yes
Asclepiadaceae
Crataegus species (wild) Rosaceae – Tree Fruit Kids –
Cuminum cyminum Linn (wild) Umbelliferae Zera Herb Fruit and seeds Man, and kids Yes
Diospyros lotus Blanco. Thor Amlok Tree Fruit Men and kid Yes
Ebenaceae
Dryopteris serratodentata (Bedd.) Hayata Gonghi Herb Young leave & aerial Man No
Dryopteridaceae shoot
Ficus carica L. Inzer Tree Fruit Kids and man Yes
Moraceae
Ficus palmata Forssk. Jngli injer Tree Fruit Kids and men Yes
Moraceae
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Umbelliferae Kaga Herb Seeds leaves and flowers Man Yes
Malva neglecta Wallr. Penderak Herb Leave, young shoot Kids and man Yes
Malvaceae
Mentha arvensis L. (wild) Phodena Herb Leave Man, and kids Yes
Lamiaceae
Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A. DC. Gurguri Tree Fruit Men, and kids Yes
Sapotaceae
Morus alba L. Spen tooth Tree Fruit Kids and man Yes
Moraceae
Morus laevigata Wall. ex Brandis Moraceae Tooth Trees/ shrubs Fruit Kids and man Yes
Myrtus communis L. Manrho Shrub Leaves Man No
Myrtaceae
Portulaca oleracea L. Zangali warkhari Herb Young branch Man Yes
Portulacaceae
Punica granatum L. (wild) Anar (negori) Tree Fruit Man, kids Yes
Punicaceae
Pyrus pyraster (L.) (wild) Tangha Tree Fruit Man & kid Yes
Rosaceae
Quercus baloot Griff. Toor pherghei Tree Fruit/Seed Man No
Fagaceae
Quercus dilalata Lindl. Ex royle Pher ghee Tree Fruit /Seed Man No
Fagaceae
Quercus ilex L. Pherghei Tree Fruit/Seed Man No
Fagaceae
Zanthoxylum armatum Druce. Dambara Tree and Fruit Kids, and men No
Rutaceae Shrub
Ziziphus jujuba Lam. Merkhanry Tree Fruit Kids and man Yes
Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Berrha Tree /shrub Fruit Kids and man Yes
Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam Rhamnaceae Bera Tree Fruit Kids and man Yes
Ziziphus nitida Roxb. Ghwndi Merkhanry Tree Fruit Men, and kids Yes
Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn. Merkhanry Tree Fruit Men, and kids Yes
Rhamnaceae

13
S. Abidullah et al. Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. Growth form of WFPs, reported from the study area.

Fig. 5. Percentage of WFPs with respect to parts uses in the study area.

3.7. Plant parts use 3.8. Habitat of the collected WFPs

Leaves and fruit plant parts were used more abundant as food sources
(37% and 36%) respectively, while seeds, as well as shoots parts, were
recorded less than 10%. Buds, bulbs, flowers, aerial shoots, branches,
pods, stems, tubers, and whole plants were used only 1% as a source of
food (Fig. 5) which were collected in different seasons of the year
2017–2020. However maximum plants were collected in August,
September, and October (Fig. 5).
We examined habitats of all 95 WFPs collected in this study was
examined. Maximum WFPs were collected from open fields, wastelands
(9%), the area near human settlements (7%), bushy vegetations (6%),
grasslands (6%), at the edge of water stream (6%), over the top of the hill
(6%), mountain areas and high mountain valley (4%) shown in Fig. 6.

14
S. Abidullah et al.
Fig. 6. Occurrence of WFPs in various habitats at Pakistan-Afghan border in district Bajaur.
4. Discussion
During the global pandemic when all the borders between Pakistan,
Afghanistan, China, India, and Iran were closed to control the spread of
Covid-19 in March 2020, soundly food prices jumped rapidly [39,40].
WFPs should be a key source to reduce the high market price and po­
tential of cultivated crops during such types of emergencies. About half
the population lives under the poverty line in the studied region. Many
peoples in the area selling WFPs and vegetables in local markets to fulfill
there their basic needs, which are clearly shown in these findings. They
prefer to use wild green vegetables and fruit instead of cultivated ones
because most of them did not effort to buy expensive cultivated nutri­
tional foods [29]. Previous studies indicated that maximum flora is
widely distributed and used as wild food in various Eurasian countries
[41–44]. However, our study revealed some unique taxa restricted to the
study area or adjacent areas. Our results are in agreement with [13] who
reported the highest FC values for A. spinosus, Olea ferrugenia and Ficus
palmata. These species are reported by various authors from various
parts of Pakistan [45–48]. Age, education, gender, and occupation are
important in collecting WFP knowledge [29,49]. We observed the
highest ratio of 65–80 and above and 55–60 age group indicating that
the traditional knowledge of WFPs is transferring from elders to the
young generation. Most of the local peoples collect WFPs from their local
habitat and generally use them for commercial and domestic purposes
without conservation policy [36,51]. Therefore, it is of utmost necessity
to study the pharmacological, phytochemical, antimicrobial, toxico­
logical activities of the WFPs in the study area. We assessed various
criteria to determine the taste of 95 WFPs species for the first time from
district Bajaur. It is also clear that most of the valuable important WFPs
are in a critical situation for biodiversity and conservation which needs
proper and sustainable care under the observation of government and
international organizations [13,41,52,53]. The seasonal availability of
WFPs from the NorthWest region has been reported by [13], who
explained that rural people in hilly areas still depend on wild food
specifically in savere weather conditions. The main marks for WFPs are
local markets specifically Khar and National market Peshawar. Impor­
tantly some key species have high market value. These marketable
species play a key role in the enhancement of poor family’s income [28].
15
Acta Ecologica Sinica xxx (xxxx) xxx
Overall maximum WFPs are reported in peak summers and intense cold
months, during which the study area faces food shortages. The same
reason has been presented by Campbe [55] who suggested that people
require additional foods during food shortages. It means some WFPs can
contribute as a source of income in this area. According to [56] if the
numbers and amount of marketable wild edible plants increase it should
be an extra source of income for the communities for their families. As a
result, the poverty level of the community could be decreased by uti­
lizing wild resources but in a controlled manner [48,53]. These results
also suggested that WFPs different forms provide support to local com­
munities at the time of emergency, war, hunger, and scarcity [6,57]. The
growth form results also indicate that these WFPs are adapted to this
region and exhibit the ability to cope with severe climate change as
compared to conventional crops [10,11,56]. Our results of plant parts
uses are similar with previous studies reporting high use of fruit and
leaves in the region [28,58,59]. The maximum use of leaves and fruit
compared to other parts revealed that the plants are continuously used
during the season of food shortage because fruit and leaves are easy to
prepare for consumption [28,56]. Habit assessment provide support that
local people rely on natural food entities and immediate vicinity for
their daily consumption. The utilization of WFPs primarily depends on
the closest ecological habitat [60–62]. Previous inventories recom­
mended that experience and convenience make the nearest habitat a
favorable site of collection [29,63]. This study determined that people
locate at Pakistan-Afghan border are very poor due to environmental
conditions and war of terror which led them to rely on WFPs. Therefore
these findings would help to expand our knowledge about WFPs, its
importance for socioeconomic development. In addition conservation
strategies are needed of the hour because extensive use of WFPs can
result in biodiversity loss in this region. Moreover our results highlight
that the inhabitants of the Pakistan-Afghan border have great interest
and dependency on local WFPs for medicine, daily use and food nutri­
tional purposes.
5. Conclusion
Pakistan-Afghan border is famous due to its unique landscape and
location, which consists of hilly areas and thick forests. It is worth
S. Abidullah et al.
mentioning to create awareness among local communities for preser­
vation, the importance of traditional herbal plants, and its knowledge by
motivating them about the sustainable use of the local vegetation in the
future. A relative analysis with the WFP of Pakistan indicated maximum
diversification of WFPs in the selected area. The maximum used species
were Ziziphus jujuba, Ziziphus nitida, Ziziphus nummular, and Monotheca
buxifolia showing the highest FC and RFC values. This survey high­
lighted the role of WFPs for human nutrition in rural areas. Moreover, it
is still necessary to commercialize and industrialized these plant species
according to the basic need of the indigenous community. If these WFPs
are industrialized, it could be a source of cash income for local people
and alternatively can provide a safe source of food during uncompli­
mentary conditions and food crises. Moreover, these results could be
utilized to guide future research programs and government policies
aimed to encourage food security and socio-economic development of
the rural areas along with biodiversity conservation.
Funding sources
No funding was received for this study.
Authors’ contributions
The field study was conducted by SA, SA and SS planned, analyzed,
and wrote the full draft manuscript, and WZ, FU, AA and FB analyzed
and revised the manuscript and data.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We are thankful to Professor Andrea Pieroni from the University of
Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II 9, 12042 Pollenzo/
Bra (Cuneo), Italy for his valuable suggestions and recommendations for
this study. Thanks to all the study participants and special thanks to
villagers of district Bajaur who share their knowledge and spent much
time with us.
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