PRESENTATION NO.

01
INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS

CHEMICAL SENSORS
Introduction, classifications and Applications

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 Chemical Sensors

Sensors
The term sensor is derived from a Latin word “sensorem” which means to “perceive or feel”.
Generally, a sensor is something similar to a sensing organ like ear, nose, tongue, skin or
tentacle of an ant but as the result of technological revolution sensors have a rank in changing
the world as they can be seen everywhere in our life as mentioned in the figure 1.

Definition
The sensors are tiny electronic devices that are designed to detect some environmental
aspects (temperature, pressure, chemicals etc.), notice any change in these aspect and convey
an electronic message about the change to notify us.

Examples
For example, Smoke alarm that detects the smoky evidence of burned food or anything,
carbon monoxide detector, temperature detectors etc. are some commonly used sensors. Our
mobile phones also contains sensors to detect tilt, vibration and magnetic field etc.

Figure 1: Different types of sensors being used in the daily life.

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Chemical Sensors
A chemical sensor is a self-contained device that is capable of providing real time analytical
information about a test sample. By chemical information we understand here the
concentration of one or more chemical species in the sample. A target species is commonly
termed the analyte or determinant. Besides chemical species, micro-organisms and viruses
can be traced by means of specific bio-compounds such their nucleic acid or membrane
components. Chemical sensors are measurement devices that convert a chemical or physical
property of a specific analyte into a measurable signal, whose magnitude is normally
proportional to the concentration of the analyte.

Example
The glass electrode for pH
determination, was the first and
best known chemical sensor, which
indicates the activity of the
hydrogen ions in a solution. A
glass electrode is a type of ion-
selective electrode made of a
doped glass membrane that is
sensitive to a specific ion. The Figure 2: Configuration of pH meter
most common application of ion-selective glass electrodes is for the measurement of pH. The
glass electrode is sensitive to hydrogen ions.

Sensors as the Eyes and Ears of Machines

As a result of technological developments there arose a demand for the sensing organs that
could be used to make the machines more intelligent. So the thrust making machines
intelligent was fulfilled by the artificial sensing organs that acted as the ears, eyes, tongues,
noses and the tentacles of artificial machine. If machines are considered to have artificial
sensing organs, they can be compared with the living organisms as mentioned in the figure 3.

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 Figure 3: Comparison between living organism and intelligent machine

Modern Definition of Chemical Sensors

Chemical sensors are small-sized devices comprising a recognition element, a transduction
element, and a signal processor capable of continuously and reversibly reporting a chemical
concentration. The following characteristics of chemical sensors are generally accepted.
Chemical sensors should:

 Transform chemical quantities into electrical signals,

 Respond rapidly,
 Maintain their activity over a long time period,
 Be small,
 Be cheap,
 Be specific, i.e. they should respond exclusively to one analyte, or at least be selective
to a group of analytes.

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Elements of Chemical Sensor
As mentioned in figure 4, a
chemical sensor usually consists
of two main units which
include: Sensing/Recognition
unit and transduction unit.

Recognition Unit
Recognition unit consists of the Figure 4: Elements of a Chemical Sensor
interaction of two components that are receptor and analyte.

 The sensing element or the receptor is a thin layer of a substance which is able to
interact with analyte molecules, catalyze a reaction selectively or establishes chemical
equilibrium with analyte molecules. The thin layers of the receptors can interact with
specific substance or a group of substances. Molecular recognition is the term to
explain this behavior.
 The most important interaction phenomenon between receptor and analyte are:
Adsorption, Ion- Exchange and Liquid-Liquid extraction. Primarily these
phenomenon act at the interface between analyte and receptor surface, where both are
in an equilibrium state.
 Instead of equilibrium, a chemical reaction may also become the source of
information. We find this, for example, in receptors where a catalyst accelerates the
rate of an analyte reaction so much that the released heat from the reaction creates a
temperature change that can be transduced into an electrical signal.

Transduction Unit
The transduction unit of the chemical sensor works to convert a non-electrical signal into and
electrical signal i.e. current, voltage or resistance. Depending upon the quantity appearing at
the output of transducers, they can be classified into three classes: current transducer, voltage
transducer and resistance transducer.

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Energy-Conversion Transducers
The principle of energy conversion means that electrical energy is produced by the sensor
from radiation energy. Many of these kinds of sensors are able to operate without external
supply voltage.

 The photovoltaic cell is an example of an energy-conversion transducer which

converts radiation energy into electrical energy.
 Further examples of energy-conversion transducers are the thermocouple, where heat
energy is transformed into electrical energy, and the tachometer generator, where an
AC or DC voltage is generated as a measure of the mechanical energy of a rotating
body.

Limiting-Current Transducers
Voltage sources can reach a limiting state if they are short circuited. Many transducers of the
energy conversion type show this behavior. In the limiting state, a maximum current flows
which cannot be increased even if an additional voltage is supplied. If we short circuit the
photovoltaic cell, then a limiting current arises that depends on the amount of photons hitting
the light-sensitive area per time unit. This means that the signal current becomes a measure
of the illumination. The resulting sensor is called the photo diode. For the galvanic cell, we
get a similar state when short circuiting. In this case, it is more common to speak about an
electrolysis cell instead of a galvanic cell.

Resistive Transducers
In many cases, electrically conducting materials change their conductivity (or, in other
words, their resistivity) when environmental properties change. Specific conductance of
metals decreases with increasing temperature, whereas semiconductors tend to increase their
conductance with higher temperature. In both cases, resistance change can be used to
determine temperature. The well-known semiconductor thermistors react sensitively to small
temperature differences. They may be converted to give chemical sensors by coating them
with a catalyst layer which catalyzes a heat-generating chemical reaction. The local
temperature increase at the thermistor surface comprises a measure of the concentration of
one of the reactants, e.g. for the partial pressure of hydrogen in air.

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Working of Chemical Sensor
In most of the chemical sensors, the receptor or sensing element interacts with the analyte
molecules, as a result physical properties of the analyte molecules are changed in such a way
that they generate an electrical signal for the transducer. In some cases receptor and
transducer are the same physical object. For example in case of the metallic oxide
semiconductor gas sensor in which electrical conductivity is changed when the sensor is in
contact with the gas and conductivity change itself is an electrical signal.

Characterization of Chemical Sensors

The performance of chemical sensors should be expressed in the form of numbers. The
criteria defined by traditional analytical chemistry were established primarily for
characterizing analytical results and analytical procedures.

Validation of Analytical Results

The following units are commonly used for characterizing the validity of analytical results:

Accuracy:
An expression of the agreement between the measurement result (given as the average value
of a measurement series) and the true value. It is also a measure of the systematic error, i.e.
deviation from the true value (normally given as a percentage).

Precision:
An expression of the random error of a measurement series or, in other words, of the
scattering of single values around the average value. The generally accepted way to express
precision is with the standard deviation (STD). The latter is the mathematical term for the
width of the Gaussian error distribution curve given in the form of σ (the distance between
the center and the inflection point of the Gaussian curve). For practical purposes, instead of
σ, the estimated value s is determined from a finite population of single values. The
approximate value s is given by the equations:

√
2
( x− x̄ )
s=
n−1

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 Where x is every individual value, x the average value and n the number of
measurement.

Parameters of Chemical Sensors

Sensitivity:
Change in the measurement signal per concentration unit of the analyte, i.e. the slope of a
calibration graph.

Detection limit:
The lowest concentration value which can be detected by the sensor in question, under
definite conditions. Whether or not the analyte can be quantified at the detection limit is not
determined. Procedures for evaluation of the detection limit depend on the kind of sensor
considered.

Dynamic range:
The concentration range between the detection limit and the upper limiting concentration.

Selectivity:
An expression of whether a sensor responds selectively to a group of analytes or even
specifically to a single analyte. Quantitative expressions of selectivity exist for different
types of sensors.

Linearity:
The relative deviation of an experimentally determined calibration graph from an ideal
straight line. Usually values for linearity are specified for a definite concentration range.

Resolution:
The lowest concentration difference which can be distinguished when the composition is
varied continuously. This parameter is important chiefly for detectors in flowing streams.

Response time:
The time for a sensor to respond from zero concentration to a step change in concentration.
Usually specified as the time to rise to a definite ratio of the final value. Thus, e.g. the value
of t99 represents the time necessary to reach 99 percent of the full-scale output. The time
which has elapsed until 63 percent of the final value is reached is called the time constant

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Hysteresis:
The maximum difference in output when the value is approached with (a) an increasing and
(b) a decreasing analyte concentration range. It is given as a percentage of full-scale output.

Stability:
The ability of the sensor to maintain its performance for a certain period of time. As a
measure of stability, drift values are used, e.g. the signal variation for zero concentration.

Life cycle:
The length of time over which the sensor will operate. The maximum storage time (shelf life)
must be distinguished from the maximum operating life. The latter can be specified either for
continuous operation or for repeated on-off cycles.

Classification of Chemical Sensors

Classification of sensors on the basis of working Principle

Figure 5: Classification of sensors on the basis of working principle

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Classification of Sensors on the basis of type of Object to be detected

Figure 6: Classification of sensors on the basis of object to be detected

Applications of Sensors
A chemical sensors can provide an inexpensive solution to a particular analytical problem
without the need for expensive, multifunctional analytical equipment such as spectrometry,
chromatography, biochemical or microbiological techniques. In addition, chemical sensors
are suitable for field chemical analysis in environmental investigations. In medicinal
applications, chemical sensors are useful in decentralized clinical investigations. Application
of chemical sensors to the in vivo determination and monitoring of chemical species of
physiological relevance is of great importance.

1) Environmental Applications
 The quality of indoor air can be assessed by means of sensors for carbon dioxide and
water vapor (humidity).
 Various toxic compounds in water can be assessed by means of their inhibiting
effects in enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
 Organic pollutant sensors have also been developed using specific antibodies as
recognition reagents. The determination of possible pathogen micro-organisms in
water is another important application that can be addressed by means of antibody-
based sensors.

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 Ion determinations can be achieved by standard potentiometric ion sensors, but, due
to their high limits of detection, such sensors are suited only for the analysis of
heavily polluted waters. However, recent progress in this field has led to the
development of ion sensors with a very low limit of detection that can tackle
determinations of metal ions below the concentration limit imposed by legal
regulations for drinking water quality.
 Sensors for toxins have been developed using micro-organisms as the sensing
elements. Micro-organism metabolism is affected by toxins in the sample, which
allow the monitoring of toxin concentrations by means of oxygen consumption in
micro-organism respiration.
 Geno-toxicity of environmental samples can be assessed by means of nucleic acid
sensors.
 Common acidity sources are nitrogen and sulfur oxides that lead to increased acidity
upon dissolution in atmospheric water. Increased acidity can be detected in an
indirect way by monitoring the content of specific anions such as nitrite and sulfate.
 A series of analytical problems in Marine Science are well suited to the application
of chemical sensors. Typical examples are the control of eutrophication due to
increased concentration of nitrate and phosphate ions from fertilizers or sewage,
monitoring of pollution by pesticides or by water diverted from oil extraction
platforms, and determination of trace metals.

2) Healthcare Applications
 Alkali and alkali-earth ions, as well as inorganic gases (dissolved oxygen and
carbon dioxide, nitrogen monoxide), can be determined by means of dedicated
sensors. Often, multiple sensors are employed in order to determine a series of target
analytes.
 Currently, glucose sensors for self-monitoring of glucose in blood are widely
available and intensive research efforts are devoted to the development and
improvement of in vivo glucose sensors.
 Sensors for a great number of biogenic compounds have also been developed.
Among many target compounds, L-lactate, pyruvate, urea, uric and oxalic acids,
histidine and histamine, phenolic compounds (L-dopa, dopamine and adrenalin),
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 superoxide and sulfated bile acids can be mentioned. Dedicated sensors allow the
monitoring of drugs in blood or urine.
 Detection of pathogenic bacteria and viruses is another application of chemical
sensors in clinical investigations. Pathogens can be detected by either immunological
sensors or by nucleic acid-based sensors.
 Normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a
therapeutic intervention can be assessed by means of biomarkers that are substances
used as indicators of pathological states. Chemical sensors for biomarkers have been
developed for the diagnostic of various forms of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and
hormone-related health problems.

3) Application in the Food Industry

 Food quality depends to a large extent on the content of nutrients and vitamins.
Saccharides (such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, and lactose) can be determined by
means of enzymatic sensors based on specific enzymes that produce chemical
conversion of the target compound. Other important components of foodstuff are
lactic acid, malic acid, citric acid, and glutamic acid. Various enzymatic sensors for
such compounds have been developed using relevant enzymes.
 An important quality parameter of foodstuff is its freshness. Foodstuff freshness can
be assessed by measuring the concentration of typical products of the spoilage
process. Meat spoilage can be assessed by means of enzymatic sensors for putrescine
(NH2(CH2)4NH2) and hypoxanthine (a purine derivative). Fish freshness can be
assessed by determining a series of spoilage products such as inoxine-5-phosphate,
inosine, and hypoxanthine.

4) Application in Agriculture
 In agriculture, chemical sensors are employed in monitoring of macronutrients such
as nitrate, phosphate and potassium ions.

5) Application in Biotechnology
 Biotechnology uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof (e.g.,
enzymes or living cells) to process raw materials. Various chemical sensors are used

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 to monitor process parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
various bio-organic compounds such as saccharides and amino acids.
 Typical applications of chemical sensors in biotechnology are found in fermentation
industry and production of certain antibiotics.

6) Applications in Defense
 Defense in general, and defense against terror attacks in particular, is currently a
matter of great concern that has prompted the development of chemical sensors for
explosives and warfare agents such as pathogenic micro-organisms and toxic gases.
 Explosives can be traced using sensors specific to the explosive vapors. Such sensors
have been developed using natural and synthetic affinity recognition reagents,
enzymes and whole cells.
 Biological warfare agents include living organisms, including viruses or infectious
material derived from them, which could be used for hostile purposes. The targets of
biological warfare agents can be humans, animals and crop plants. Such agents can
multiply in the attacked organism and cause disease or death. Pathogenic bacteria,
viruses and certain fungi are typical biological warfare agents. Various types of
chemical sensor for detection of biological warfare agents have been developed using
various recognition mechanisms, such as affinity recognition by antibodies or
synthetic materials, recognition by enzymes or whole cells, and the tracing of the
pathogen DNA by means of a complementary DNA sequence.

References
Florinel-Gabriel Banica, 2012. Chemical Sensors and Biosensors: Fundamentals and
Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Peter Gründler, 2007. Chemical Sensors: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers.
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2007

https://www.fierceelectronics.com/electronics/what-a-chemical-sensor

https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/51593

https://dewesoft.com/daq/what-is-a-sensor

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https://www.engineersgarage.com/sensors-different-types-of-sensors/

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