PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Prelim
Learning Module 01:
Overview of Reciprocating
Engine and Gas Turbine
Engine

AMT 2203 – AIRCRAFT POWERPLANT

OVERHAUL AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Prepared by:

Mr. Brainard Allen A. Grajeda – AMT INSTRUCTOR

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ref. No. PAGE
TITLE
Introduction 1&2 5

Reciprocating Engine 1 5

Design and Construction 1&2 5

Crankcase Section 1&2 6

• Bearings 2 7

• Crankshaft 1&2 9

• Connecting Rod 2 11

• Piston 1&2 12

• Cylinders 1&2 15

Accessory Section 2 18

Gas Turbine Engine 1 `19

Air Inlet 2 20

Compressor Section 1 21

• Types of Compressor 1&2 21

Combustion Section 1&2 25

Turbine Section 2 28

Exhaust Section 1 29

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Table of Reference

References No.
Federal Aviation Administration. (2018). Aviation
Maintenance Technician Handbook Powerplant, Vol. 1. 1

Wild, T.W. & Kroes, M. J. (2014). Aircraft Powerplants 8th

Edition. McGraw-Hill Education Book 2

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Learning Outcome

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOME (CLO)

CLO 1. To express ideas MODULE LEARNING OUTCOME

effectively in the understanding
in the Reciprocating engine
and Gas turbine engine
CLO 2. To formulate effectively
the techniques to conduct
thorough, independent
impartial and awareness
regarding safety of an aircraft
engine particularly in the
ground operation servicing and
maintenance practices.
CLO 5. To identify the basic
policies, standards and
procedures for the safety of
aircraft during daily operation
in servicing or maintenance
activities in aircraft engine.
(MLO)
MLO 1. Name and recall TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOME
the basic components (TLO)
and design structure of a
Reciprocating Engine. TLO 1. Discussion by recalling
reciprocating engine and
MLO 2. Name and recall gas turbine engine
the basic components construction and
and design structure of a nomenclature.
Gas turbine Engine.
TLO 2. Discussion by defining
the differences between
reciprocating engine and
gas turbine engine.
TLO 3. Identify and explain
the different components of
a reciprocating engine and
gas turbine engine.

An aircraft engine, or powerplant, produces thrust to propel an aircraft.

Reciprocating engines and turboprop engines work in combination with a propeller to
produce thrust. Turbojet and turbofan engines produce thrust by increasing the velocity
of air flowing through the engine. All of these powerplants also drive the various systems
that support the operation of an aircraft.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

INTRODUCTION

Familiarity with an engine's components and construction is basic to

understanding its operating principles and maintenance practices. In the construction of
an aircraft reciprocating engine, reliability of the working parts is of primary importance.
This need generally requires the use of strong, and at times heavy, materials which can
result in a bulky and heavy engine. A major problem in the design of aircraft engine
components lies in constructing parts strong enough to be reliable but light enough for
use in an aircraft. Moving parts are carefully machined and balanced in an effort to
minimize vibration and fatigue. In the construction of an aircraft engine, individual
components must be designed and constructed in order to obtain a powerplant which
has good reliability, weighs little, and is economical to operate.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE

Design
and Construction

The basic
major
components of a
reciprocating
engine are the
crankcase,
cylinders, pistons,
connecting rods,
valves, valve-
operating
Figure 1. Basic Parts of a Reciprocating Engine
mechanism, and

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

crankshaft. In the head of each cylinder are the valves and spark plugs. One of the valves
is in a passage leading from the induction system; the other is in a passage leading to the
exhaust system. Inside each cylinder is a movable piston connected to a crankshaft by
a connecting rod.

Crankcase Sections

The foundation of
an engine is the
crankcase as it is the
housing that encloses
the various
mechanisms
surrounding the
crankshaft. The
functions of the
crankcase are as
follows: (l) it must
support itself, (2) it
Figure 2. Crankcase
contains the bearings in
which the crankshaft revolves, (3) it provides a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil, (4) it
supports various internal and external mechanisms of the powerplant, (5) it provides
mountings for attachment to the airplane, (6) it provides support for the attachment of
the cylinders, and (7) by reason of its strength and rigidity, it prevents the misalignment of
the crankshaft and its bearings.
The crankcase is subjected to many variations of mechanical loads and other
forces. Since the cylinders are fastened to the crankcase, the tremendous forces placed
on the cylinder tend to pull the cylinder off the crankcase. The unbalanced centrifugal
and inertia forces of the crankshaft acting through the main bearings subject the

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

crankcase to bending moments which change continuously in direction and magnitude.

The crankcase must have sufficient stiffness to withstand these bending moments without
major deflections.

Bearings
A bearing is any surface that supports or is supported by another surface. It is a
part in which a journal, pivot, pin, shaft, or similar device turns or revolves. The bearings
used in aircraft engines are designed to produce minimum friction and maximum wear
resistance.
A good bearing has two broad characteristics: (1) it must be made of a material
that is strong enough to withstand the pressure imposed on it and yet permit the other
surface to move with a minimum of wear and friction, and (2) the parts must be held in
position within very close tolerances to provide quiet and efficient operation and at the
same time permit freedom of motion.
Bearings must reduce the friction of moving parts and also take thrust loads, radial
loads, or combinations of thrust and radial loads. Those which are designed primarily to
take thrust loads are called thrust bearings.

Types of Bearings

Plain Bearing - These bearings are usually designed to take radial loads; however, plain
bearings with flanges are often used as thrust bearings in opposed aircraft engines. Plain
bearings are used for connecting rods, crankshafts, and camshafts of low-power aircraft
engines. Plain bearings are made with a variety of metal combinations. Some bearings
in common use are steel-backed with silver or silver-bronze on the steel and a thin layer
of lead then applied for the actual bearing surface. Other bearings are bronze-backed
and have a lead or babbitt surface.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Roller Bearing - one of the two types known as "antifriction" bearings because the rollers
eliminate friction to a large extent. These bearings are made in a variety of shapes and
sizes and can be adapted to both radial and thrust loads. Roller bearings are used in
high-power aircraft engines as main bearings to support the crankshaft. They are also
used in other applications where radial loads are high.
The bearing race is the guide or channel along which the rollers travel. In a roller
bearing, the roller is situated between an inner and an outer race, both of which are
made of case-hardened steel. When a roller is tapered, it rolls on a cone-shaped race
inside an outer race.

Ball Bearing - provide less rolling Plain Bearing

friction than any other type. A ball
bearing consists of an inner race
and an outer race, a set of
polished steel balls, and a ball
retainer. Some ball bearings are Roller Bearing

made with two rows of balls and

two sets of races. The races are
designed with grooves to fit the
curvature of the balls in order to
provide a large contact surface
for carrying high radial loads. Ball
Ball Bearing
bearings are commonly used for
thrust bearings in large radial Figure 3. Different Types of Bearing
engines and gas-turbine engines.
Because of their construction, they can withstand heavy thrust loads as well as radial or
centrifugal loads. They are also subject to gyroscopic loads, but these are not critical. A
ball bearing designed especially for thrust loads is made with exceptionally deep grooves
for the ball races. Bearings designed to resist thrust in a particular direction will have a

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

heavier race design on the side which takes the thrust. It is important to see that this type
of bearing is installed with the correct side toward the thrust load.

Crankshaft
The crankshaft is carried in a position parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
crankcase and is generally supported by a main bearing between each throw.
The crankshaft is the backbone of the reciprocating engine. It is subjected to most
of the forces developed by the engine. Its main purpose is to transform the reciprocating
motion of the piston and connecting rod into rotary motion for rotation of the propeller.
The crankshaft, as the name implies, is a shaft composed of one or more cranks located
at specified points along its length. The cranks, or throws, are formed by forging offsets
into a shaft before it is machined. Since crankshafts must be very strong, they generally
are forged from a very strong alloy, such as chromium-nickel-molybdenum steel.
A crankshaft may be constructed of one or more pieces. Regardless of whether it
is of one-piece or multipiece construction, the corresponding parts of all crankshafts have
the same names and functions. The parts are (1) the main journal, (2) the crankpin, (3)
the crank cheek or crank arm, and (4) the counterweights and dampers.

Figure 5. Twin-row Radial Engine Crankshaft.

Figure 4. Single-throw Radial Engine Crankshaft

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Parts of Crankshaft

Main Journal - part of the crankshaft that is supported by and rotates in a main bearing.
Because of this it may also properly be called a main-bearing journal. This journal is the
center of rotation of the crankshaft and serves to keep the crankshaft in alignment under
all normal conditions of operation. Every aircraft engine crankshaft has two or more main
journals to support the weight and operational loads of the entire rotating and
reciprocating assembly in the power section of the engine.

Crankpin - The crankpin can also be called a connecting-rod bearing journal simply
because it is the journal for a connecting rod bearing. Since the crankpin is off center
from the main journals, it is sometimes called a throw. The crankshaft will rotate when a
force is applied to the crankpin in any direction other than parallel to a line directly
through the centerline of the crankshaft.
The crankpin is usually hollow for three reasons: (1) it reduces the total weight of
the crankshaft, (2) it provides a passage for the lubricating oil, and (3) it serves as a
chamber for collecting carbon deposits, sludge, and other foreign substances which are
thrown by centrifugal force to the outside of the chamber where they will not reach the
connecting-rod bearing surface.

Crank Cheek - sometimes called the crank arm, is the part of the crankshaft which
connects the crankpin to the main journal. It must be constructed to maintain rigidity
between the journal and the crankpin. On many engines, the crank cheek extends
beyond the main journal and supports a counterweight used to balance the crankshaft.
Crank cheeks are usually provided with drilled oil passages through which lubricating oil
passes from the main journals to the crankpins.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Counterweights and Dampers - Excessive vibration in an engine not only results in fatigue
failure of the metal structures, but also causes the moving parts to wear rapidly. In some
instances, excessive vibration is caused by a crankshaft that is not balanced. Crankshafts
are balanced for static balance and dynamic balance. A crankshaft is statically
balanced when the weight of the entire assembly of crankpins, crank cheeks, and
counterweights is balanced around the axis of rotation. When checked for static
balance, it is placed on two knife edges. If the shaft tends to turn toward any one position
during the test, it is out of static balance.

The purpose of the counterweight is to provide static balance for a crankshaft. If

a crankshaft has more than two throws, it does not always require counterweights
because the throws, being arranged symmetrically opposite each other, balance each
other.
The purpose of dynamic dampers is to relieve the whip and vibration caused by
the rotation of the crankshaft. They are suspended from or installed in specified crank
cheeks at locations determined by the design engineers. Crankshaft vibrations caused
by power impulses may be reduced by placing floating dampers in a counterweight
assembly. The need for counterweights and dampers is not confined to aircraft engines.
Any machine with rotating parts may reach a speed at which so much vibration occurs
in the revolving mass of metal that the vibration must be reduced or else the machine
will eventually destroy itself.

Connecting Rod
A variety of connecting-rod assemblies have been designed for the many
different types of engines. The connecting rod is the link which transmits forces between
the piston and the crankshaft of an engine. It furnishes the means of converting the
reciprocating motion of the piston to a rotating movement of the crankshaft in order to
drive the propeller.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Figure 6. Connecting rod Assemblies

The end of the rod which connects to the crankshaft is called the large end, or
crankpin end, and the end which connects to the piston pin is called the small end, or
piston-pin end.
Connecting rods stop, change direction, and start at the end of each stroke;
therefore, they must be lightweight to reduce the inertial forces produced by these
changes of velocity and direction. At the same time, they must be strong enough to
remain rigid under the severe loads imposed under operating conditions.

Pistons
The piston of a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical member which moves back
and forth within a steel cylinder. The piston acts as a moving wall within the combustion
chamber. As the piston moves down in the cylinder, it draws in the fuel/air mixture. As it
moves upward, it compresses the charge, ignition occurs, and the expanding gases
force the piston downward. This force is transmitted to the crankshaft through the
connecting rod. On the return upward stroke, the piston forces the exhaust gases from
the cylinder and the cycle repeats.
The top of the piston is the head. The sides form the skirt. The underside of the piston
head often contains ribs or other means of presenting maximum surface area for contact

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

with the lubricating oil splashed

on it. This oil carries away part of
the heat conducted through the
piston head.
Some pistons are constructed
with a slightly oval cross section.
The diameter perpendicular to
Figure 7. Cross Section of an Assembled Piston
the piston pin is greater, to allow
for more wear of the piston due to additional side thrust against the cylinder walls and to
provide a better fit at operating temperatures. The oval shape of the piston will hold the
piston square in the cylinder when the engine is cold. This will reduce piston slap or the
piston cocking in the cylinder during engine warm-up.
As the piston reaches operating temperature, the
oval shape will become round, providing the proper
piston-cylinder-wall fit. This results from the greater
mass of metal perpendicular to the piston pin.
Grooves are machined around the outer
surface of the piston to provide support for the piston
rings. The metal between the grooves is called a
groove land, or simply a land. The grooves must be
accurately dimensioned and concentric with the
piston.
The piston and ring assembly must form as
nearly as possible a perfect seal with the cylinder wall.

Figure 8. Complete Piston Assembly It must slide along the cylinder wall with very little
friction. The engine lubricating oil aids in forming the
piston seal and in reducing friction. All the piston assemblies in any one engine must be
balanced. This means that each piston must weigh within 1/4 ounce (oz) [7 .09 grams (g)]
of each of the others. This balance is most important to avoid vibration while the engine

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

is operating. In any case, the weight limitations specified by the manufacturer must be
observed.

Piston Rings
The importance of the piston rings in a reciprocating engine cannot be
overemphasized. Their three principal functions are (1) to provide a seal to hold the
pressures in the combustion chamber, (2) to prevent excessive oil from entering the
combustion chamber, and (3) to conduct the heat from the piston to the cylinder walls.
Worn or otherwise defective piston rings will cause loss of compression and excessive oil
consumption. Defective piston rings will usually cause excessively high oil discharge from
the crankcase breather and excessive emission of blue smoke from the engine exhaust
during normal operation. The smoke is normal when an engine is first started, but it should
not continue for more than a few moments.

Types of Piston Rings

Compression Rings - The purpose of the compression rings is to prevent the escape
of combustion gases past the piston during engine operation. They are placed in the ring
grooves immediately below the piston head. The number of compression rings used on
each piston is determined by the type of engine and its design, although most aircraft
engines use two compression rings plus one or more oil control rings.
The cross-section of the ring is either rectangular or wedge shaped with a tapered
face. The tapered face presents a narrow bearing edge to the cylinder wall, which helps
to reduce friction and provide better sealing.

Oil Rings - The principal purpose of oil rings is to control the quantity of lubricant supplied
to the cylinder walls and to prevent this oil from passing into the combustion chamber.
The two types of oil rings are oil control rings and oil wiper rings (sometimes called oil
scraper rings).

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Oil control rings are placed in the grooves immediately below the compression
rings. There is generally only one oil control ring on a piston. However, there may be one
or two oil scraper rings.
The purpose of the oil control ring is to control the thickness of the oil film on the
cylinder wall. The groove of the oil control ring is often provided with holes drilled to the
inside of the piston to permit excess oil to be drained away. The oil flowing through the
drilled holes provides additional lubrication for the piston pins.

Piston Pins
Sometimes called a wrist pin, is used to attach the piston to the connecting rod. It
is made of steel (AMS6274 or AMS 6322) hollowed for lightness and surface hardened or
through-hardened to resist wear. The pin passes through the piston at right angles to the
skirt so that the piston can be anchored to the connecting-rod assembly. A means is
provided to prevent the piston pin from moving sideways in the piston and damaging
the cylinder wall. The piston pin is mounted in bosses and bears directly on the aluminum
alloy of which the pistons are made. The piston pin passes through the piston bosses and
through the small end of the connecting rod which rides on the central part of the pin.

Cylinders
The cylinder of an internal-combustion engine converts the chemical heat energy
of the fuel to mechanical energy and transmits it through pistons and connecting rods to
the rotating crankshaft. In addition to developing the power from the fuel, the cylinder
dissipates a substantial portion of the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel,
houses the piston and connecting-rod assembly, supports the valves and a portion of the
valve-actuating mechanism, and supports the spark plugs. There are four major factors
that need to be considered in the design and construction of the cylinder assembly. It
must:

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

1. Be strong enough to withstand the internal pressures developed during engine

operation.

2. Be constructed of a lightweight metal to

keep down engine weight.

3. Have good heat-conducting properties for

efficient cooling.
4. Be comparatively easy and inexpensive to
manufacture, inspect, and maintain.

The cylinder assembly used for present-

day engines usually includes the following
components: (1) cylinder barrel with an integral
skirt, (2) cylinder head, (3) valve guides, (4) valve
rocker-arm supports, (5) valve seats, (6) spark
plug bushings, and (7) cooling fins. The cylinder
assemblies, together with the pistons,
connecting rods, and crankcase section to Figure 9. Cylinder Assembly
which they are attached, may be regarded as the main power section of the engine.
The two major units of the cylinder assembly are the cylinder barrel and the
cylinder head.

Cylinder Barrel - The cylinder barrel in which the piston operates must be made of a
high-strength material, usually steel. It must be as light as possible yet have the proper
characteristics for operating under high temperatures. It must be made of a good
bearing material and have high tensile strength. The cylinder barrel is made of a steel
alloy forging with the inner surface hardened to resist wear of the piston and the piston
rings which bear against it. This hardening is usually done by exposing the steel to
ammonia or cyanide gas while the steel is very hot. The steel soaks up nitrogen from the

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

gas, which forms iron nitrides on the exposed surface. As a result of this process, the metal
is said to be nitrided. This nitriding only penetrates into the barrel surface a few thousands
of an inch. As the cylinder barrels wear due to use, they can be repaired by chroming.
This is a process that plates chromium on the surface of the cylinder barrel and brings it
back to new standard dimensions. Chromium-plated cylinders should use cast iron rings.
Honing the cylinder walls is a process that brings it to the correct dimensions and provides
crosshatch pattern for seating the piston rings during engine break-in. Some engine
cylinder barrels are choked at the top, or they are smaller in diameter to allow for heat
expansion and wear.
In some instances, the barrel has threads on the outside surface at one end so that
it can be screwed into the cylinder head. The cooling fins are machined as an integral
part of the barrel and have limits on repair and service.

Cylinder Head - The purpose of the cylinder head is to provide a place for combustion
of the fuel/air mixture and to give the cylinder more heat conductivity for adequate
cooling. The fuel/air mixture is ignited by the spark in the combustion chamber and
commences burning as the piston travels toward top dead center (top of its travel) on
the compression stroke. The ignited charge is rapidly expanding at this time, and pressure
is increasing so that, as the piston travels through the top dead center position, it is driven
downward on the power stroke. The intake and exhaust valve ports are located in the
cylinder head along with the spark plugs and the intake and exhaust valve actuating
mechanisms.
After the cylinder head is cast, the sparkplug bushings, valve guides, rocker arm
bushings, and valve seats are installed in the cylinder head. Spark plug openings may be
fitted with bronze or steel bushings that are shrunk and screwed into the openings.
Stainless steel Heli-Coil spark plug inserts are used in many engines currently
manufactured. Bronze or steel valve guides are usually shrunk or screwed into drilled
openings in the cylinder head to provide guides for the valve stems. These are generally
located at an angle to the center line of the cylinder. The valve seats are circular rings of

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

hardened metal that protect the relatively soft metal of the cylinder head from the
hammering action of the valves (as they open and close) and from the exhaust gases.

Accessory Section

The accessory section of an

engine provides mounting pads for
the accessory units, such as the fuel
pressure pumps, fuel injector pumps,
vacuum pumps, oil pumps,
tachometer generators, electric
generators, magnetos, starters, two-
speed supercharger control valves,
oil screens, hydraulic pumps, and
other units. Regardless of the
construction and location of the
accessory housing, it contains and
supports the gears for driving those
accessories which are operated by
engine power. Accessory sections
for aircraft engines vary widely in
shape and design because of the Figure 10. Accessory case for a six-cylinder opposed
engine and aircraft requirements. engine
The accessory case for a Lycoming opposed engine is shown in Fig. 10. This case
is constructed from aluminum or magnesium and is secured to the rear of the crankcase.
The accessory case conforms to the shape of the crankcase and forms part of the seal
for the oil sump. The accessory case generally is for the purpose of housing and driving
the engine accessories. To perform this function, it has mounting pads for the various
accessories that the engine or the aircraft systems require. Some of the engine

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

accessories that the case houses are the magnetos, oil filters, fuel pumps, tachometer
drives, and vacuum pumps.
In some engines the fuel pump is activated through the use of a plunger which is
driven by an elliptical lobe on one of the accessory drive gears. Generally, the accessory
drive gears consist of a crankshaft gear, an idler gear, a camshaft gear, and various other
gears which drive all the engine accessories.
The accessory case also serves as part of the lubrication system. As previously
mentioned, the oil pump is housed with its drive gear and idler gear on the internal side
of the accessory case. In some cases, the oil pump and its housing are mounted
externally on the accessory case.

GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Design and Construction

Figure 11. Gas Turbine Engine

In a reciprocating engine, the functions of intake, compression, combustion, and

exhaust all take place in the same combustion chamber. Consequently, each must have
exclusive occupancy of the chamber during its respective part of the combustion cycle.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

A significant feature of the gas turbine engine is that separate sections are devoted to
each function, and all functions are performed simultaneously without interruption.
A typical gas turbine engine consists of:

1. An air inlet,

2. Compressor section,

3. Combustion section,

4. Turbine section,

5. Exhaust section,

6. Accessory section, and

7. The systems necessary for starting, lubrication, fuel supply, and auxiliary purposes,
such as anti-icing, cooling, and pressurization.
The major components of all gas turbine engines are basically the same; however,
the nomenclature of the component parts of various engines currently in use varies
slightly due to the difference in each manufacturer’s terminology. These differences are
reflected in the applicable maintenance manuals. One of the greatest single factors
influencing the construction features of any gas turbine engine is the type of compressor
or compressors for which the engine is designed.

Air Inlet
The inlet of a turbine engine is typically located at the front of the compressor. It is
not really a section of the engine defined by any one particular part. The inlet is formed
by the structural support parts located forward of the compressor and has the purpose
of admitting air to the forward end of the compressor. The opening of the inlet is usually
of fixed size, but may be variable depending on the design of the compressor used in the
particular engine.
The major engine part that may be located in this area of the engine is the
compressor front frame. The front frame serves as the structural support member for the

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

forward end of the engine and houses the bearing for the forward end of the compressor
rotor. The inlet must have a clean aerodynamic design to ensure a smooth, evenly
distributed airflow into the engine.

Compressor Section

The compressor section of the gas turbine engine has many functions. Its primary
function is to supply air in sufficient quantity to satisfy the requirements of the combustion
burners. Specifically, to fulfill its purpose, the compressor must increase the pressure of the
mass of air received from the air inlet duct, and then discharge it to the burners in the
quantity and at the pressures required.
A secondary function of the compressor is to supply bleed-air for various purposes
in the engine and aircraft. The bleed-air is taken from any of the various pressure stages
of the compressor. The exact location of the bleed ports is, of course, dependent on the
pressure or temperature required for a particular job. The ports are small openings in the
compressor case adjacent to the particular stage from which the air is to be bled; thus,
varying degrees of pressure are available simply by tapping into the appropriate stage.
Air is often bled from the final or highest-pressure stage since, at this point, pressure and
air temperature are at a maximum. At times it may be necessary to cool this high-pressure
air. If it is used for cabin pressurization or other purposes to which excess heat would be
uncomfortable or detrimental, the air is sent through an air conditioning unit before it
enters the cabin.

Types of Compressors

Since the more that air can be compressed, the more mass is available to do work
when the air is heated and expanded, the

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

gas-turbine engine must have some means of compressing air into the available space.
There are three types of compressors with respect to airflow: the centrifugal type,
combination of centrifugal and axial, and the axial type.
Even though each type of compressor has advantages and disadvantages, they
all have a place in the type and size of engine that they are used with.

The centrifugal-flow compressor's advantages are

1. High pressure rise per stage
2. Good efficiencies over wide rotational speed range
3. Simplicity of manufacture, thus low cost
4. Low weight
5. Low starting power requirements

The centrifugal-flow compressor's disadvantages are

1. Large frontal area for given airflow
2. More than two stages are not practical because of
losses in turns between stages

The axial-flow compressor's advantages are

1. High peak efficiencies
2. Small frontal area for given airflow
3. Straight-through flow, allowing high ram efficiency
4. Increased pressure rise by increasing number of stages
with negligible losses

The axial-flow compressor's disadvantages are

1. Good efficiencies over only narrow rotational speed range
2. Difficulty of manufacture and high cost
3. Relatively high weight
4. High starting power requirements (overcome somewhat
by split compressors)

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Centrifugal-Flow Compressor

Figure 12. Main Parts of Compressor

The centrifugal-flow compressor consists of three main parts: an impeller, a diffuser,

and a compressor manifold. The term centrifugal means that the air is compressed by
centrifugal force.
Centrifugal compressors operate by taking in outside air near the hub and rotating
it by means of an impeller. The impeller, which is usually an aluminum-alloy forging, guides
the air toward the outside of the compressor, building up the air velocity by means of
high rotational speed of the impeller. The air then enters the diffuser section. The diffuser
converts the kinetic energy of the air leaving the compressor to potential energy
(pressure) by exchanging velocity for pressure. An advantage of the centrifugal-flow
compressor is its high pressure rise per stage.

Axial-Flow Compressor
In an axial-flow jet engine, the air flows axially- that is, in a relatively straight path
in line with the axis of the engine. The axial-flow compressor consists of two elements: a
rotating member called the rotor, and the stator, which consists of rows of stationary

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

blades. The stator vanes are airfoil sections that

are mounted in stationary casings. The rotor
comprises the rotating components and
castings that support the rotor blades which
are attached to the rotor. The rotor is attached
to a shaft which is driven by the turbine or
turbine stages that drive this compressor. The
rotor blades are attached to the rotor and are
of an airfoil shape which maintains an axial air
flow throughout the compressor.
The principle of operation of the axial-
flow turbojet engine is the same as that of the
centrifugal-flow engine; however, the axial-
flow engine has a number of advantages: (1)
Figure 13. (A) Rotor and (B) Stator of an The air flows in an almost straight path through
Axial-Flow Compressor
the engine, and therefore less energy is lost as
))
a result of the air changing direction. (2) The pressure ratio (ratio of compressor inlet
pressure to compressor discharge pressure) is greater because the air can be
compressed through as many stages as the designer wishes. (3) The engine frontal area
can be smaller for the same volume of air consumed. (4) There is high peak efficiency.
The compressor blades, shaped like small airfoils, become smaller from stage to
stage, moving from the front of the compressor to the rear. The stator blades are also
shaped like small airfoils, and they, too, become smaller toward the high-pressure end of
the compressor. The purpose of the stator blades is to change the direction of the airflow
as it leaves each stage of the compressor rotor and to give it proper direction for entry
into the next stage. Stator blades also eliminate the turbulence that would otherwise
occur between the compressor blades. The ends of the stator blades are fitted with
shrouds to prevent the loss of air from stage to stage and to the interior of the compressor
rotor.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Combustion Section

The combustion section houses the combustion process, which raises the
temperature of the air passing through the engine. This process releases energy
contained in the air/fuel mixture. The major part of this energy is required at the turbine
or turbine stages to drive the compressor. About ²⁄³ of the energy is used to drive the gas
generator compressor. The remaining energy passes through the remaining turbine
stages that absorb more of the energy to drive the fan, output shaft, or propeller. Only
the pure turbojet allows the air to create all the thrust or propulsion by exiting the rear of
the engine in the form of a high-velocity jet. These other engine types have some jet
velocity out the rear of the engine but most of the thrust or power is generated by the
additional turbine stages driving a large fan, propeller, or helicopter rotor blades.
The primary function of the combustion section is, of course, to burn the fuel/air
mixture, thereby adding heat energy to the air. To do this efficiently, the combustion
chamber must:
• Provide the means for proper mixing of the fuel and air to assure good combustion,

• Burn this mixture efficiently,

• Cool the hot combustion products to a temperature that the turbine inlet guide
vanes/blades can withstand under operating conditions, and

• Deliver the hot gases to the turbine section.

The location of the combustion section is directly between the compressor and the
turbine sections. The combustion chambers are always arranged coaxially with the
compressor and turbine regardless of type, since the chambers must be in a through-flow
position to function efficiently. All combustion chambers contain the same basic
elements:

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

1. Casing

2. Perforated inner liner

3. Fuel injection system

4. Some means for initial ignition

5. Fuel drainage system to drain off unburned fuel after engine shutdown

There are currently three basic types of combustion chambers, variations within type
being in detail only. These types are:

1. Can type - A typical can-type combustor,

consists of an outer shell and a removable liner
with openings
to permit compressor discharge air to enter from
the outer chamber. Approximately 25 percent
of the air that passes through the combustion
section is actually used for combustion, the
remaining air being used for cooling. Located at
Figure 14. Can Type Combustion Chamber the front end of the combustion chamber is a
fuel nozzle through which fuel is sprayed into the inner liner. The flame burns in the center
of the inner liner and is prevented from burning the liner by a blanket of excess air which
enters through holes in the liner and surrounds the flame.
One of the more important advantages of the can-type combustion chamber is
that the liner surface has a large degree of curvature which results in high resistance to
warpage. The main disadvantage of the can-type chamber is that it does not efficiently
utilize the available space. Another disadvantage is found in the large area of metal
required to enclose the required volume of gas flow.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

2. Can-annular type - The can-annular or cannular

type of combustion chamber has characteristics of
both the annular and can types. This type of
combustion chamber is composed of combustion
chamber liners located circumferentially within an
annular combustion chamber case. The large
curvature of liner surface is retained, thereby
maintaining a high degree of resistance to
warpage. Each liner has its own fuel nozzles. The
space available is well utilized, although not to the
Figure 15. Can Annular Type Combustion
same high degree as in the annular type. Individual Chamber
liners tend to even out the air velocity distribution
into the burner. The can-annular combustion chamber operates at a high-pressure level,
aiding efficient combustion at reduced power and high altitudes.

3. Annular type - The annular-type combustion

chamber has some desirable advantages, including
efficient air and gas handling. The annular-type
chamber makes the most efficient use of the
available space. This type of combustor requires
about half the diameter for the same mass airflow.
Even though the annular type is simpler in
construction, the lower curvature makes it more
susceptible to warping.
Figure 16. Annular Type Combustion
Chamber

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

Turbine Section
A turbojet engine may have a single-stage
turbine or a multistage arrangement. The function of
the turbine is to extract kinetic energy from the high-
velocity gases leaving the combustion section of
the engine. The energy is converted to shaft
horsepower for the purpose of driving the
compressor. Approximately three-fourths of the
energy available from the burning fuel is required for
the compressor. If the engine is used for driving a
propeller or a power shaft, up to 90 percent of the
energy of the gases will be extracted by the turbine
section.
Turbines come in three types: the impulse
turbine, the reaction turbine, and a combination of
the two called a reaction-impulse turbine. Turbojet
engines normally employ the reaction-impulse type.
The pressure and speed of the gases passing
through the impulse turbine remain essentially the
Figure 17. Typical Turbines
same, the only change being in the direction of flow.
The turbine absorbs the energy required to change the direction of the high-speed gases.
A reaction turbine changes the speed and pressure of the gases. As the gases pass
between the turbine blades, the cross-sectional area of the passage decreases and
causes an increase in gas velocity. This increase in velocity is accompanied by a
decrease in pressure according to Bernoulli's law. In this case the turbine absorbs the
energy required to change the velocity of the gases.
Since the nozzle vanes and turbine blades in gas-turbine engines are subjected to
extremely high temperatures, they must be constructed of high-temperature alloys and
some type of special cooling must be provided. If the vanes and blades in the turbine

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

area cannot withstand the temperatures to which they are subjected, burning and stress-
rupture cracks will develop. Remember that the efficiency of an engine becomes
greater as the temperature of the gases at the burner outlet becomes greater. The
development of high-temperature alloys containing cobalt, columbium (niobium),
nickel, and other elements has made it possible to increase the operating temperature
of, and thus the power available from, gas-turbine engines. A further development has
been the application of coatings to the vanes and blades to enable them to withstand
heat and to prevent high-temperature corrosion.
Turbine blades are made in shrouded and unshrouded configurations. The
shrouded blade has an extension cast on the tip to mate with the extension on the
adjacent blade and form a continuous ring around the blade tips. This ring aids in
preventing the escape of exhaust gases around the tips of the blades. Because of the
added weight of the shrouds, shrouded turbine blades are particularly susceptible to
growth (creep) caused by centrifugal force and overtemperature conditions.

Exhaust Section
The exhaust section of the gas turbine engine consists of several components.
Although the components have individual purposes, they also have one common
function: they must direct the flow of hot gases rearward in such a manner as to prevent
turbulence and, at the same time, impart a high final or exit velocity to the gases. In
performing the various functions, each of the components affects the flow of gases in
different ways. The exhaust section is located directly behind the turbine section and
ends when the gases are ejected at the rear in the form of a high-velocity exhaust gases.
The components of the exhaust section include the exhaust cone, tailpipe (if
required), and the exhaust nozzle. The exhaust cone collects the exhaust gases
discharged from the turbine section and gradually converts them into a solid flow of
gases. In performing this, the velocity of the gases is decreased slightly and the pressure
increased. This is due to the diverging passage between the outer duct and the inner
cone; that is, the annular area between the two units increases rearward. The exhaust

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

cone assembly consists of an outer shell or duct, an inner cone, three or four radial hollow
struts or fins, and the necessary number of tie rods to aid the struts in supporting the inner
cone from the outer duct.
The outer shell or duct is usually made of
stainless steel and is attached to the rear flange of
the turbine case. This element collects the exhaust
gases and delivers them directly to the exhaust
nozzle. The duct must be constructed to include
such features as a predetermined number of
thermocouple bosses for installing exhaust
temperature thermocouples, and there must also
be insertion holes for the supporting tie rods. In some
cases, tie rods are not used for supporting the inner
Figure 18. Exhaust collector with welded
support struts. cone. If such is the case, the hollow struts provide
the sole support of the inner cone, the struts being spot-welded in position to the inside
surface of the duct and to the inner cone, respectively. The radial struts actually have a
twofold function. They not only support the inner cone in the exhaust duct, but they also
perform the important function of straightening the swirling exhaust gases that would
otherwise leave the turbine at an angle of approximately 45°.
The centrally located inner cone fits rather closely against the rear face of the
turbine disk, preventing turbulence of the gases as they leave the turbine wheel. The
cone is supported by the radial struts. In some configurations, a small hole is located in
the exit tip of the cone. This hole allows cooling air to be circulated from the aft end of
the cone, where the pressure of the gases is relatively high, into the interior of the cone
and consequently against the face of the turbine wheel. The flow of air is positive, since
the air pressure at the turbine wheel is relatively low due to rotation of the wheel; thus air
circulation is assured. The gases used for cooling the turbine wheel return to the main
path of flow by passing through the clearance between the turbine disk and the inner

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

cone. The exhaust cone assembly is

the terminating component of the
basic engine. The remaining
component (the exhaust nozzle) is
usually considered an airframe
component.
The tailpipe is usually
constructed so that it is semiflexible.
On some tailpipes, a bellows Figure 19. Exhaust System Insulation Blanket
arrangement is incorporated in its
construction, allowing movement in installation, maintenance, and in thermal expansion.
This eliminates stress and warping which would otherwise be present.
The heat radiation from the exhaust cone and tailpipe could damage the
airframe components surrounding these units. For this reason, some means of insulation
had to be devised. There are several
suitable methods of protecting the
fuselage structure; two of the most
common are insulation blankets and
shrouds.
The insulation blanket, illustrated
in Figures 19 and 20, consists of several
layers of aluminum foil, each separated
by a layer of fiberglass or some other
suitable material. Although these
blankets protect the fuselage from heat
radiation, they are used primarily to
reduce heat loss from the exhaust
Figure 20. Insulation blanket with the temperatures
obtained at the various locations shown.
system. The reduction of heat loss
improves engine performance.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

There are two types of exhaust nozzle designs: the converging design for subsonic
gas velocities and the converging-diverging design for supersonic gas velocities
The exhaust nozzle opening may be of either fixed or variable area. The fixed-area
type is the simpler of the two exhaust nozzles since there are no moving parts. The outlet
area of the fixed exhaust nozzle is very critical to engine performance. If the nozzle area
is too large, thrust is wasted; if the area is too small, the engine could choke or stall. A
variable-area exhaust nozzle is used when an augmenter or afterburner is used due to
the increased mass of flow when the afterburner is activated. It must increase its open
area when the afterburner is selected. When the afterburner is off, the exhaust nozzle
closes to a smaller area of opening.

Enrichment Activity

I. Identification. Identify the answer in each question. (Complete this

activity within 5 mins).

1. This provides mounting pads for the accessory units, such as the fuel
pressure pumps, fuel injector pumps, vacuum pumps, oil pumps,
tachometer generators, electric generators, magnetos, starters, two-
speed supercharger control valves, oil screens, hydraulic pumps, and
other units.
2. It consists of three main parts: an impeller, a diffuser, and a compressor
manifold.
3. This is directly between the compressor and the turbine sections. This
must always be arranged coaxially with the compressor and turbine
regardless of type, since it must be in a through-flow position to function
efficiently.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

4. Any surface that supports or is supported by another surface.

5. Its main purpose is to transform the reciprocating motion of the piston
and connecting rod into rotary motion for rotation of the propeller.
6. converts the chemical heat energy of the fuel to mechanical energy
and transmits it through pistons and connecting rods to the rotating
crankshaft.
7. Provide a place for combustion of the fuel/air mixture and to give the
cylinder more heat conductivity for adequate cooling.
8. It has separate sections are devoted to each function, and all
functions are performed simultaneously without interruption.
9. It serves as the structural support member for the forward end of the
engine and houses the bearing for the forward end of the compressor
rotor.
10. The foundation of an engine is the crankcase as it is the housing that
encloses the various mechanisms surrounding the crankshaft.

II. ENUMERATION. (Complete this activity within 10 mins).

1-7. Functions of Crankcase

8-10. Types of Bearings
11-15. 5 Major Parts of GTE
16-17. 2 Exhaust Nozzle Designs
18-20. 3 Principal Functions of Piston Rings

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Prelim Learning Module 01: Overview of Reciprocating Engine and
Gas Turbine Engine

TIME FRAME

The student should complete this module within 11.76 hours

and comply with all the given activities.

HONESTY CLAUSE As a student under the AMT Department of Institute of

Engineering and Technology (InET), with my signature and
Parent/Guardian’s signature below, I declared that my
compliance with this module/subject is my work and
adequately documented.

Student’s Name and Signature Parent/Guardian’s Signature

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