University of Zimbabwe

HNE/HET 104 MATHEMATICAL METHODS FOR

ENGINEERING 1
Author:
Department:
Mrs C.J. Mandave
Mathematics And
Maths building Office 225
Computational Sciences
cjmandave@science.uz.ac.zw

October 17, 2022

Course Outline

0.1 Purpose

The concentration in this module is on motivating results and concepts geometrically rather than on
providing rigorous proofs. Concepts are defined carefully and results stated precisely, but illustrated
by way of vivid, concrete examples. This module will also cover algebraic ideas that introduces
and develops concepts necessary for a first module in algebra. The course is a pre-requisite for
Mathematical Methods for Engineering 2.

0.2 Course Content

0.2.1 Number systems

1. Natural, Rational and Irrational Numbers,

2. Principle of Mathematical Induction,

3. The Real Number System, Inequalities, Solution Sets and Geometrical Representation,

4. Absolute Value, Neighborhoods and Intervals.

0.2.2 Sequences and limits

1. Definitions and Notation, Limits of Sequences and their properties,

2. Monotone Sequences,

3. Convergence or Divergence of infinite Series,

4. Tests for Convergence or Divergence of infinite Series (Direct Comparison Test, Limit Com-
parison test, Alternating Series Test, Absolute convergence, N th Root test and Ratio Test)

1
0.2.3 Functions, Limits and Continuity

1. Definitions and Notation .

2. Definition of a limit of a function and its application,

3. Left and Right hand Limits,

4. L’ Hospital’s Rule,

5. Continuous Functions,

0.2.4 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

1. Basic definitions and notation, geometric representation and laws of vector algebra,

2. The dot or scalar product, the cross or vector product,

3. The scalar triple product, the vector triple product.

0.2.5 Complex Numbers and Polynomials

1. Introduction, Operations, Rules of Complex arithmetic,

2. Modulus, Complex conjugate, Division, Polar representation of complex numbers, De Moivre’s

theorem and its application,

3. Applications of complex numbers, The fundamental theorem of algebra.

0.2.6 Matrices and Determinants

1. Matrix addition and multiplication, properties, Transpose of a matrix, square matrices, diag-
onal and trace, Powers of matrices,

2. Some special types of square matrices, Determinants, Laplace expansion of the determinant,
Inverse of matrices,

3. Application of matrices, Elementary row operations, Inverses using row operations, Solving
systems of linear equations.

2
0.3 Student Assessment

Students will write three assessments whose average will contribute 50% to their final mark.
A 2 hour final examination will be written at the end of the semester.
The examination will contribute 50% to the final mark.
The examination paper has two sections; namely; section A and section B. Candidates may attempt
ALL questions in Section A and at most TWO questions in Section B. Section A carries 40 marks
and each question in section B carries 30 marks.

0.4 Selected Resources(references)

Recommended reading

ˆ S Lang, Calculus of Several Variables (Springer Science+Business Media New York).

ˆ P D Lax, M S Terrell, Calculus with Applications (Springer Science+Business Media New

York).

ˆ M R Spiegel, Advanced Calculus (Schaum’s Outline Series).

ˆ J R Kirkwood, An Introduction To Analysis (PWS Publishing Company).

ˆ A Jeffrey, Linear Algebra and Differential Equations.

ˆ Antony Howard, Elementary Linear Algebra, 7th edition (Wiley, 1994)

ˆ M R Spigel, Complex Variables, Schaum Outline Series.

3
Chapter 1

The Basics

1.1 Number Systems

Mathematics has its own language with numbers as the alphabet. The language is given structure
with the aid of connective symbols, rules of operation, and a rigorous mode of thought (logic). The
number systems that we use in calculus are the natural numbers, the integers, the rational numbers,
and the real numbers. Let us describe each of these :

1. The natural numbers are the system of positive counting numbers 1, 2, 3 . . . . We denote the
set of all natural numbers by N.

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . }.

2. The integers are the positive and negative whole numbers and zero, . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
We denote the set of all integers by Z.

Z = {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }.

3. The rational numbers are quotients of integers or fractions, such as 32 , − 54 . Any number
p
of the form , with p, q ∈ Z and q 6= 0, is a rational number. We denote the set of all rational
q
numbers by Q.   
p 
Q= p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0 .
q
4. The real numbers are the set of all decimals, both terminating and non-terminating. We
denote the set of all real numbers by R. A decimal number of the form x = 3.16792 is actually
a rational number, for it represents
316792
x = 3.16792 = .
100000
4
A decimal number of the form

m = 4.27519191919 . . . ,

with a group of digits that repeats itself interminably, is also a rational number. To see this,
notice that
100 · m = 427.519191919 . . .
and therefore we may subtract

100m = 427.519191919 . . .
m = 4.27519191919 . . .

Subtracting, we see that

99m = 423.244
or
423244
m= .
99000
So, as we asserted, m is a rational number or quotient of integers. To indicate recurring
decimals we sometimes place dots over the repeating cycle of digits, e.g., m = 4.2751̇9̇,
19
6
= 3.16̇.
Another kind of decimal number is one which has a non-terminating decimal expansion that
does not keep repeating. An example is π = 3.14159265 . . . . Such a number is irrational, that
is, it cannot be expressed as the quotient of two integers.
In summary : There are three types of real numbers : (i) terminating decimals, (ii) non-
terminating decimals that repeat, (iii) non-terminating decimals that do not repeat. Types
(i) and (ii) are rational numbers. Type (iii) are irrational numbers.
The geometric representation of real numbers as points on a line is called the real axis. Between
any two rational numbers on the line there are infinitely many rational numbers. This leads
us to call the set of rational numbers an everywhere dense set.
Real numbers are characterised by three fundamental properties :

(a) algebraic means formalisations of the rules of calculation (addition, subtraction, multi-
plication, division). Example : 2(3 + 5) = 2 · 3 + 2 · 5 = 6 + 10 = 16.
3 1
(b) order denote inequalities. Example : − < .
4 3
(c) completeness implies that there are “no gaps” on the real line.
Algebraic properties of the reals for addition (a, b, c ∈ R) are :
(A1) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. associativity
(A2) a + b = b + a. commutativity
(A3) There is a 0 such that a + 0 = a. identity
(A4) There is an x such that a + x = 0. inverse
Why these rules? They define an algebraic structure (commutative group). Now define anal-
ogous algebraic properties for multiplication :

5
(M1) a(bc) = (ab)c.
(M2) ab = ba.
(M3) There is a 1 such that a · 1 = a.
(M4) There is an x such that ax = 1 for a 6= 0.

Finally, connect multiplication and addition :

(D) a(b + c) = ab + ac. distributivity

These 9 rules define an algebraic structure called a field.

Order properties of the reals are :

(O1) for any a, b ∈ R, a ≤ b or b ≤ a. totality of ordering I

(O2) if a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a = b. totality of ordering II
(O3) if a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c. transitivity
(O4) if a ≤ b, then a + c ≤ b + c. order under addition
(O5) if a ≤ b and c ≥ 0, then ac ≤ bc. order under multiplication

Some useful rules for calculations with inequalities are : If a, b, c are real numbers, then :

(a) if a < b and c < 0 ⇒ bc < ac.

(b) if a < b ⇒ −b < −a.
1
(c) if a > 0 ⇒ > 0.
a
1 1
(d) if a and b are both positive or negative, then a < b ⇒ < .
b a
The completeness property can be understood by the following construction of the real
numbers : Start with the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . .

ˆ N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } natural numbers ⇒ Can we solve a + x = b for x?

ˆ Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . } integers ⇒ Can we solve ax = b for x?
ˆ Q = { pq |p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0} rational numbers ⇒ Can we solve x2 = 2 for x?
√
ˆ R real numbers, for example : The positive solution to the equation x2 = 2 is 2. This
is an irrational number whose decimal representation is not eventually repeating.

⇒ N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R
In summary, the real numbers R are complete in the sense that they correspond to all points on
the real line, i.e., there are no “holes” or “gaps”, whereas the rationals have “holes” (namely
the irrationals).
You Try It : What type of real number is 3.41287548754875 . . . ? Can you express this
number in more compact form?

6
1.2 Intervals

Definition 1.2.1. A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least two numbers
and all the real numbers between any of its elements.

Examples :

1. x > −2 defines an infinite interval. Geometrically, it corresponds to a ray on the real line.

2. 3 ≤ x ≤ 6 defines a finite interval. Geometrically, it corresponds to a line segment on the real

line.

Finite Intervals. Let a and b be two points such that a < b. By the open interval (a, b) we mean
the set of all points between a and b, that is, the set of all x such that a < x < b. By the closed
interval [a, b] we mean the set of all points between a and b or equal to a or b, that is, the set of all
x such that a ≤ x ≤ b. The points a and b are called the endpoints of the intervals (a, b) and [a, b].

By a half-open interval we mean an open interval (a, b) together with one of its endpoints. There
are two such intervals : [a, b) is the set of all x such that a ≤ x < b and (a, b] is the set of all x such
that a < x ≤ b.

Infinite Intervals. Let a be any number. The set of all points x such that a < x is denoted by
(a, ∞), the set of all points x such that a ≤ x is denoted by [a, ∞). Similarly, (−∞, b) denotes the
set of all points x such that x < b and (−∞, b] denotes the set of all x such that x ≤ b.

1.3 Solving Inequalities

Solve inequalities to find intervals of x ∈ R. Set of all solutions is the solution set of the inequality.
Examples:

7
 1.

2x − 1 < x + 3
2x < x + 4
x < 4.

2. For what values of x is x + 3(2 − x) ≥ 4 − x?

x + 3(2 − x) ≥ 4 − x when
x + 6 − 3x ≥ 4−x
6 − 2x ≥ 4−x
2 ≥ x ⇒ x ≤ 2.

3. For what values of x is (x − 4)(x + 3) < 0?

Case 1: (x − 4) > 0 and (x + 3) < 0, =⇒ x > 4 and x < −3.
Impossible since x cannot be both greater than 4 and less than −3.
Case 2: (x − 4) < 0 and (x + 3) > 0, =⇒ x < 4 and x > −3 =⇒ −3 < x < 4.

2 3
You Try It: Solve the inequality < .
x−1 2x + 1

1.4 The Absolute Value

It is a quantity that gives the magnitude or size of a real number. The absolute value or modulus
of a real number x, denoted by |x|, is given by

x, if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.

Geometrically, |x| is the distance between x and 0. For example, | − 6| = 6, |5| = 5, |0| = 0.

1.4.1 Properties of the Absolute Value

1. The absolute value of a real number x is non-negative, that is, |x| ≥ 0.

2. The absolute value of a real number x is zero if and only if x = 0, that is, |x| = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0.

3. In general, if x and y are any two numbers, then

8
 (a) −|x| ≤ x ≤ |x|.
(b) | − x| = |x| and |x − y| = |y − x|.
(c) |x| = |y| implies x = ±y.
 
 x  |x|
(d) |xy| = |x| · |y| and   = if y 6= 0.
y |y|
(e) |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|. (Triangle inequality)
4. If a is any positive number, then
(a) |x| = a if and only if x = ±a.
(b) |x| < a if and only if −a < x < a.
(c) |x| > a if and only if x > a or x < −a.
(d) |x| ≤ a if and only if −a ≤ x ≤ a.
(e) |x| ≥ a if and only if x ≥ a or x ≤ −a.

Example: Show that for all real numbers x, | − x| = |x|.

Solution: If x ∈ R, then either x > 0, x = 0 or x < 0. If x > 0, then −x < 0. Thus,
| − x| = −(−x) = x = |x|, that is, | − x| = |x|.
If x = 0, then | − x| = | − 0| = |0| = 0, that is, | − x| = |x|.
If x < 0, then −x > 0. Now |x| = −x = | − x| since −x > 0.
Therefore in all cases | − x| = |x|.

Solving an Equation with Absolute Values: Solve the equation |2x − 3| = 7.

Solution: Hence 2x − 3 = ±7, so there are two possibilities,

2x − 3 = 7 2x − 3 = −7
2x = 10 2x = −4
x = 5 x = −2

The solutions of |2x − 3| = 7 are x = 5 and x = −2.

 
 2 
Solving Inequalities Involving Absolute values: Sole the inequality 5 − < 1.
x

Solution: We have
 

5 − 2  2
< 1 ⇐⇒ −1 < 5 − < 1
 x  x
2
⇐⇒ −6 < − < −4
x
1
⇐⇒ 3 > > 2
x
1 1
⇐⇒ <x< .
3 2
9
Solve the inequalities and show the solution set on the real line. (a) |2x − 3| ≤ 1 (b) |2x − 3| ≥ 1.

Solution: (a)

|2x − 3| ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ −1 ≤ 2x − 3 ≤ 1
⇐⇒ 2 ≤ 2x ≤ 4
⇐⇒ 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

The solution set is the closed interval [1, 2].

(b)

|2x − 3| ≥ 1 ⇐⇒ 2x − 3 ≥ 1 or 2x − 3 ≤ −1
⇐⇒ x ≥ 2 or x ≤ 1.

The solution set is (−∞, 1] ∪ [2, ∞).

You Try It: Solve the inequality 4|x| < 7x − 6.

1.5 The Principle of Mathematical Induction

It is an important property of the positive integers (natural numbers) and is used in proving state-
ments involving all positive integers when it is known for, for example, that the statements are valid
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . but it is suspected or conjectured that they hold for all positive integers.

1.5.1 Steps

1. Prove the statement for n = 1 or some other positive integer. (Initial Step)

2. Assume the statement true for n = k, where k ∈ Z+ . (Inductive Hypothesis)

3. From the assumption in 2 prove the statement must be true for n = k + 1.

4. Since the statement is true for n = 1 (from 1) it must (from 3) be true for n = 1 + 1 = 2 and
from this for n = 2 + 1 = 3, and so on, so must be true for all positive integers. (Conclusion)

Example: For any positive integer n,

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = .
2
Solution:

10
 1(1 + 1) 2
1. Prove for n = 1, 1 = = = 1, which is clearly true.
2 2
2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is,

k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + k = .
2

3. Prove for n = k + 1. So
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) (by inductive hypothesis)
2
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
=
2
2
k + 3k + 2
=
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2
so holds for n = k + 1.
n(n + 1)
4. Hence by induction, 1 + 2 + · · · + n = is true for any positive integer n.
2

Example: Prove that for any natural number

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2n − 1 = n2 .

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1, 1 = 12 = 1, so it is true.

2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is,

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2k − 1 = k 2 .

3. Prove for n = k + 1. We have

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + 2(k + 1) − 1 = k 2 + 2k + 1 (by inductive hypothesis)

= (k + 1)2 .

So it is true for n = k + 1.

4. Hence by induction 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2n − 1 = n2 is true for all natural numbers n.

11
 Example: Prove that 3n > 2n for all natural numbers n.

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1 =⇒ 31 = 3 > 21 = 2, which is true.

2. Assume the statements holds for n = k, that is, 3k > 2k .

3. Prove for n = k + 1.

3k+1 = 3k · 3
> 2k · 3 by inductive hypothesis
> 2k · 2 since 3 > 2
> 2k+1 ,

which is true.

4. Hence, by induction 3n > 2n for all natural numbers n.

Example: Prove that for any integer n ≥ 1, 22n − 1 is divisible by 3.

Solution:

1. Prove for n = 1 =⇒ 22 − 1 = 3 and is divisible by 3, hence its true.

2. Assume that the statement holds for n = k, that is, for k ≥ 1, 22k − 1 is divisible by 3, i.e.,
22k − 1 = 3l, for some l ∈ Z.

3. Prove for n = k + 1.

22(k+1) − 1 = 4 · 22k − 1 but 22k = 3l + 1 by the inductive hypothesis

= 4(3l + 1) − 1
= 12l + 4 − 1
= 12l + 3
= 3(4l + 1),

which is true.

4. Hence, by induction 22n − 1 is divisible by 3 for all n ≥ 1.

1.6 Tutorial 1
1. Express the following recurring decimals in the form p/q where p and q are integers
(i) 2, 1737̇3̇ (ii) 0, 3̇2̇4̇.

12
 2. Express 0, mnmnmnmn . . . = 0, ṁṅ, where m and n are distinct integers, in the form p/q
where p and q are integers.

3. State, giving a reason, whether each of the following numbers is rational or irrational.
(i) 0.20200200020 . . . (ii) 537.137137137 . . . .

4. Does the decimal 0, 1234567891011121314151617181920 . . . whose digits are natural numbers

strung end-to-end represent a rational or an irrational number? Give a reason for your answer.

5. Show that if 0 < a < b then a2 < b2 . If a2 < b2 , is it necessarily true that a < b? Give an
example to illustrate your answer.
1 √
6. If a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0, prove that (a + b) ≥ ab.
2
7. Solve the following inequalities.
2x + 3
(i) x2 + x − 2 > 0 (ii) >3 (iii) 2|x| > 3x − 10 (iv) |x + 1| ≥ 3
x−5
8. Prove that |ab| = |a||b| for all a, b ∈ R.

9. Show that |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| for all a, b ∈ R.

10. Prove that |x|2 = x2 for any real number x.

11. If x and y are real numbers, prove that |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|.

12. Prove the following by induction.

(a) n! > 2n for all n ≥ 4.

(c) n2 ≤ 2n for all n ≥ 5.
n
X rn+1 − 1
(d) The sum of terms in a geometric series is ri = , if r 6= 0, r 6= 1, n ∈ N.
i=0
r−1
n 2
(g) 3 > n for n > 2.
(h) 72n − 48n − 1 is divisible by 2304.
(k) | sin nx| ≤ n| sin x| for all x ∈ R, n ∈ Z+ .
n2 (n + 1)2
(l) 13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + n3 = .
4

13
Chapter 2

Sequences and Limits

Definition 2.0.1. A sequence is a set of numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . in a definite order of arrangement

and formed according to a definite rule.

Each number in the sequence is called a term and un is called the nth term. The sequence
u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . is written briefly as {un }, e.g., {un } = 2n, where u1 = 2, u2 = 4, u3 = 6 and so
on. The sequence is called finite or infinite according as there are or are not a finite number of
terms.

Recursion Formula or Recurrence Relations

So far we have seen that a sequence {Un } may be defined by giving a formula for {Un } in terms of
n. For example
2n2 − 5n + 4
Un = √ .
n2 + 1
We can also define sequences by giving a relation or formula that connect successive terms of a
sequence and specifying the value or values of the first term or the first and second terms etc. The
formula or relation linking the terms is called a recursion formula or recurrence relation.

Example:
Find the values of the first four terms of the sequence defined by
2
un+1 = , u0 = 1, n ∈ N.
un

Solution:
2 2
u1 = u0+1 = = =2
u0 1
2 2
u2 = u1+1 = = =1
u1 2
2 2
u3 = u2+1 = = = 2.
u2 1

14
You Try It: Define recursively
a0 = a1 = 1, and an = an−1 + 2an−2 , n ≥ 2.
Find a6 recursively.

2.1 Limits of Sequences

1
Lets consider the sequence un = . The sequence has the terms 1, 21 , 13 , 14 , . . . . We see that the
n
terms of the sequence tend to or approach 0.
Definition 2.1.1. A number L is called the limit of an infinite sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . or {an }, if
for any positive number ε, we can find a positive number N depending on ε such that |an − L| < ε
for all integers n > N . We write lim an = L.
n→∞

If {an } is a convergent sequence, it means that the terms an can be made arbitrarily close to L for
n sufficiently large.

1 3n + 1
Example: If un = 3 + = , the sequence is 4, 27 , 10
3
, . . . and we can show that
n n
lim un = 3.
n→∞

If the limit of a sequence exists, the sequence is called convergent, otherwise, it is called divergent.

15
 1
Example: Prove that lim = 0.
n→∞ n

   
1  1 1 1 1
Proof: Let ε > 0, we can find N (ε) such that  − 0 =   = < ε. But n > . So N = .
n n n ε ε
1 1
Taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have, lim = 0.
ε n→∞ n

1
You Try It: Prove that lim = 0 if p ∈ N.
n→0 np

2n − 1 2
Example: Use the definition of a limit to prove that lim = .
n→∞ 3n + 2 3

Proof: Let ε > 0, we can find N (ε) such that

         
 2n − 1 2   3(2n − 1) − 2(3n + 3)   6n − 3 − 6n − 4   −7   7 
 − =
 3n + 2 3  
=
  3(3n + 2)   3(3n + 2)   3(3n + 2)  < ε
= = 
3(3n + 2)

7
< ε
3(3n + 2)
7 − 6ε
n > .
9ε
7 − 6ε 7 − 6ε
Take N = . So taking N to be the smallest integer greater than , we have
 9ε 9ε
 2n − 1 2  2n − 1 2
 3n + 2 − 3  < ε , i.e., n→∞
lim = .
 
3n + 2 3

2.2 Theorems on Limits

If lim an = A and lim bn = B, then

n→∞ n→∞

1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = A + B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2. lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = A − B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

3. lim (an · bn ) = ( lim an )( lim bn ) = AB.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an lim an A
4. lim = n→∞ = if lim bn = B 6= 0.
n→∞ bn lim bn B n→∞
n→∞

5. The limit of a convergent sequence {un } of real numbers is unique.

16
Proof: We must show that if lim un = l1 and lim un = l2 , then l1 = l2 . By hypothesis, given any
n→∞ n→∞
ε ε
ε > 0, we can find N such that |un − l1 | < when n > N and |un − l2 | < when n > N . Then
2 2
ε ε
|l1 − l2 | = |l1 − un + un − l2 | ≤ |l1 − un | + |un − l2 | < + = ε,
2 2
i.e., |l1 −l2 | is less than any positive ε (however small) and so must be zero, i.e., l1 −l2 = 0 =⇒ l1 = l2 .

Example: If lim an = A and lim bn = B, prove that lim (an + bn ) = A + B.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Proof: We must show that for any ε > 0, we can find N > 0, such that |(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < ε
for all n > N . We have

|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| = |(an − A) + (bn − B)| ≤ |an − A| + |bn − B|.

ε
By hypothesis, given ε > 0 we can find N1 and N2 such that |an − A| < for all n > N1 and
2
ε
|bn − B| < for all n > N2 . Then
2
ε ε
|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < + =ε
2 2
for all n > N where N = max(N1 , N2 ). Hence lim (an + bn ) = A + B.
n→∞

2.3 Sequences Tending to Infinity

n tends to infinity, n → ∞ (n grows or increases beyond any limit ). Infinity is not a number and
the sequences that tend to infinity are not convergent.

We write lim an = ∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N (depending
n→∞
on M ) such that an > M for all n > N .

Similarly, we write lim an = −∞, if for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N
n→∞
such that an < −M for all n > N .

Example: Prove that (a) lim 32n−1 = ∞ (b) lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞ n→∞

Proof: (a) If for each positive number M we can find a positive number
 N such
 that an > M for
1 ln M
all n > N , then 32n−1 > M when (2n − 1) ln 3 > ln M , i.e., n > + 1 . Taking N to be
  2 ln 3
1 ln M
the smallest greater than + 1 , then lim 32n−1 = ∞.
2 ln 3 n→∞

17
(b) If for each positive number M , we can find a positive number N such that an < −M for all
n > N , i.e., 1 − 2n < −M when 2n − 1 > M or n > 12 (M + 1). Taking N to be the smallest integer
greater than 12 (M + 1), we have lim (1 − 2n) = −∞.
n→∞

2.4 Bounded and Monotonic Sequences

A sequence that tends to a limit l is said to be convergent and the sequence converges to l. A
sequence may tend to +∞ or −∞, and is said to be divergent and it diverges to +∞ or −∞.

If un ≤ M for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , where M is a constant, we say that the sequence {un } is bounded

above and M is called an upper bound. The smallest upper bound is called the least upper bound
(l.u.b).

If un ≥ m, the sequence is bounded below and m is called a lower bound. The largest lower bound
is called the greatest lower bound (g.l.b).

If m ≤ un ≤ M , the sequence is called bounded, indicated by |un | ≤ P . (Every convergent sequence

is bounded, but the converse is not necessarily true)

If un+1 ≥ un , the sequence is called monotonic increasing and if un+1 > un it is called strictly
increasing. If un+1 ≤ un , the sequence is called monotonic decreasing, while if un+1 < un it is
strictly decreasing.

Examples: 1. The sequence 1, 1.1, 1.11, 1.111, . . . is bounded and monotonic increasing.
2. The sequence 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . is bounded but not monotonic increasing or decreasing.
1
Definition 2.4.1. A null sequence is a sequence that converges to 0, e.g., un = , n ≥ 11.
n − 10

If {un } does not tend to a limit or +∞ or −∞, we say that {un } oscillates (or is an oscillating
sequence). It can oscillate finitely (bounded) or infinitely (unbounded).

Examples: un = (−1)n , un = (−1)n n.

2.5 Limits of Combination of Sequences

5 − 2n2
 
1 3
We want to be able to evaluate limits, for example, of the form lim 2− + 2 or lim .
n→∞ n n n→∞ 4 + 3n + 2n2

18
  
1 3 1 1
Example: lim 2 − + 2 = lim 2 − lim + 3 lim 2 = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2.
n→∞ n n n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n

3n2 − 5n 3 − n5 3+0 3
Example: lim = lim = = .
n→∞ 5n2 + 2n − 6 n→∞ 5 + 2 − 6
5+0+0 5
n n2

√ √ 
√ √ √ √ n+1+ n 1
Example: lim ( n + 1 − n) = lim ( n + 1 − n) · √ √ = lim √ √ = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n+1+ n n→∞ n+1+ n

2.6 Squeeze Theorem

If lim an = l = lim bn and there exists an N such that an ≤ cn ≤ bn , for all n > N , then
n→∞ n→∞
lim cn = l.
n→∞

cos n
Example: Find lim .
n→∞ n

Solution: We know that −1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1

1 cos n 1 1 cos n 1 cos n
=⇒ − ≤ ≤ =⇒ − lim ≤ lim ≤ lim =⇒ 0 ≤ lim ≤0
n n n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n
cos n
=⇒ lim = 0.
n→∞ n

2.7 Tutorial 2
1. Write
( the first
) five terms
( of each of) the following
( sequences. ) ( )
n
2n − 1 1 − (−1) (−1)n−1 (−1)n−1 x2n−1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
3n + 2 n3 2 · 4 · 6 · · · 2n (2n − 1)!

2. Determine the general term of each sequence.

1 2 3 4 5
(i) , , , , ,....
2 3 4 5 6
1 3 5 9
(iii) 3 , 5 , 7 , 11 , . . . .
5 5 5 5
3. (i) Recursively define a0 = 0, a1 = 1, a2 = 2 and an = an−1 − an−2 + an−3 for n ≥ 3. List the
first five terms.
(ii) Recursively define s0 = 1, s1 = −3 and sn = 6sn−1 − 9sn−2 for n ≥ 2, find s5 .

4. Using the definition of a limit, show that each of the following sequences cannot have the limit
shown:
2n − 1 1 n+1 1 n
(i) un = , (ii) un = , (iii) un = 2 , 1.
3n + 4 2 7n − 4 6 n +1

19
5. Use the definition of a limit to verify each of the following limits.
2n − 1 2 4 − 2n 2 sin n
(i) lim = (ii) lim =− (iii) lim =0
n→∞ 3n + 2 3 n→∞ 3n + 2 3 n→∞ n

an − bn
6. Find lim , where a > 0 and b > 0 for the three cases:
n→∞ an + bn
(i) a > b (ii) a < b (iii) a = b.

7. Use the properties of limits to evaluate

 √ each of thefollowing limits.
4 − 2n − 3n2 3n2 − 5n + 4 √
(i) lim 2
(ii) lim (iii) lim ( n2 + n − n)
n→∞ 2n + n n→∞ 2n − 7 n→∞
4
3 √
  
n(n + 2) n 2n − 3
(iv) lim − 2 (v) lim ( n + 1 − n) (vi) lim
n→∞ n+1 n +1 n→∞ n→∞ 3n + 7
√ √
s
√ 3 (3 − n)( n + 2)
(vii) lim ( 4n2 + n + 5 − 2n) (viii) lim .
n→∞ n→∞ 8n − 4
2 2 √
8. Show that if an → l as n → ∞, then an+1 = an + 2 converges to 3 2.
3 3an

20
Chapter 3

Functions, Limits and Continuity

Definition 3.0.1. A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns to each element x
in X a unique element y in Y .

The set X is called the domain of the function f and the range is the set of all elements of Y
assigned to an element of X. The element of Y assigned to an element x of X is called the image
of x under f and is denoted by f (x). We write f : X → Y for saying f is a function from X to Y .

In this course, both X and Y are sets of real numbers. Thus, the functions are called real functions.
We usually specify a function f by giving the expression for f (x). Below are a few examples of
functions:

f (x) = 5x4 + 9, g(t) = 1 − t3 , h(s) = 9s2 + 2.

Note that in the above examples, the letters f, g, h are used to denote functions whereas the let-
ters x, t, s are used to denote the variables. A variable is an arbitrary element of a set. In the
above examples, the letters x, t, s denote the independent variables and f (x), g(t), h(s) denote
the dependent variables since their values depend on the values of x, t, s respectively.

The domain of a function f is the largest set of real numbers for which the rule makes sense.

21
 1 1
Example: Let f (x) = , we cannot compute f (0), since is not defined. Then the domain of
x 0
1
f (x) = is the set of all real numbers except 0.
x

Function Domain x ∈ X Range y ∈ Y

y = x2 (−∞, ∞) [0, ∞)
1
y= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
x
√
y = √x [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
y = 1 − x2 [−1, 1] [0, 1]

Table 3.1: Examples of functions

You Try It: Let

x
g(x) = .
x2 + 4x + 3
What is the domain and range of this function?

3.1 Monotone and Bounded Functions

A real function f is increasing (strictly increasing) on an interval I if for all points x1 and x2
in I with x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) (f (x1 ) < f (x2 )).

A real function f is decreasing (strictly decreasing) on an interval I if for all points x1 and x2
in I with x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) (f (x1 ) > f (x2 )).

A real function f is monotone on interval I if f is either increasing or decreasing.

Example: Consider the function f (x) = (2x − 1)(x + 5). We observe that f is increasing on
the interval (−9/4, ∞) and is decreasing on the interval (−∞, −9/4).

Bounded Functions

A function f is bounded above if there is a real number M such that f (x) ≤ M for all points x
in its domain. The number M is then called an upper bound of f .

A function f is bounded below if there is a real number m such that f (x) ≥ m for all points x
in its domain. The number m is then called a lower bound of f .

A function f is bounded if f is bounded above and below, that is, there exist real numbers
M and m such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all points x in its domain.

Examples: f (x) = x + 3 is bounded in −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. An upper bound is 4 (or any number greater

than 4). A lower bound is 2 (or any number less than 2).

22
 The single most important idea in calculus is the idea of limit. More than 2000 years ago, the
ancient Greeks wrestled with the limit concept, and they did not succeed. It is only in the past 200
years that we have finally come up with a firm understanding of limits. The study of calculus went
through several periods of increased mathematical rigour beginning with the French mathematician
Augustin-Loius Cauchy (1789-1857) and later continued by the German mathematician, and former
high school teacher, Karl Wilhelm Weierstrass (1815-1897).

3.2 Limit of a Function

If f is a function, then we say lim f (x) = A, if the value of f (x) gets arbitrarily closer to A as x gets
x→a
closer and closer to a. For example, lim x2 = 9, since x2 gets arbitrarily close to 9 as x approaches
x→3
as close as one wishes to 3.

The definition can be stated more precisely as follows : lim f (x) = A if and only if, for any
x→a
chosen positive number ε, however small, there exists a positive number δ, such that, whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − A| < ε.

lim f (x) = A means that f (x) can be made as close as desired to A by making x close enough, but
x→a
not equal to a. How close is “close enough to a” depends on how close one wants to make f (x) to
A. It also of course depends on which function f is and on which number a is. The positive number
ε is how close one wants to make f (x) to A ; one wants the distance to be no more then ε. The
positive number δ is how close one will make x to a ; if the distance from x to a is less than δ (but
not zero), then the distance from f (x) to A will be less than ε. Thus δ depends on ε. The limit
statement means that no matter how small ε is made, δ can be made smaller enough. The letters
ε and δ can be understood as “error” and “distance”. In these terms the error (ε) can be made as
small as desired by reducing the distance (δ).

The ε − δ definition of lim f (x) = A

x→a

For any chosen positive number ε, however small, there exists a positive number δ, such that,
whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − A| < ε.

Example: Show that lim (x2 + 1) = 2.

n→1

Solution: Need to find δ so that, for a given ε, |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε for |x − 1| < δ.

23
Now
x 2 + 1 − 2 = x2 − 1
= (x + 1)(x − 1).
Choose |x − 1| < 1 so that −1 < x − 1 < 1 ⇒ 0 < x < 2 ⇒ 1 < x + 1 < 3. You have |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε
ε
if 3|x − 1| < ε or |x − 1| < . You have now two conditions on x :
3
ε
|x − 1| < 1 and |x − 1| < .
3
ε ε
Choose δ = min{1, 3 }. For a given ε > 0, choose δ = min{1, 3 }, then we have |x − 1| < δ, it would
be true that |x2 + 1 − 2| < ε.

Example: Show that lim (x2 + 3x) = 10.

x→2

Solution: Let ε > 0. We must produce a δ > 0 such that, whenever 0 < |x − 2| < δ then
|(x2 + 3x) − 10| < ε. First we note that
|(x2 + 3x) − 10| = |(x − 2)2 + 7(x − 2)| ≤ |x − 2|2 + 7|x − 2|.
ε
Also, if 0 < δ ≤ 1, then δ 2 ≤ δ. Hence, if we take δ to be the minimum of 1 and , then, whenever
8
0 < |x − 2| < δ,
|(x2 + 3x) − 10| < δ 2 + 7δ ≤ δ + 7δ = 8δ ≤ ε.
 
1
You Try It: Prove that lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x

Right and Left Limits

Considering x and a as points on the real axis where a is fixed and x is moving, then x can approach
a from the right or from the left. We indicate these respective approaches by writing x → a+ and
x → a− .

If lim+ f (x) = A1 and lim− f (x) = A2 , we call A1 and A2 respectively the right and left hand limits
x→a x→a
of f (x) at a.

We have lim f (x) = A if and only if lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = A. The existence of the limit from the
x→a x→a x→a
left does not imply the existence of the limit from the right and conversely. When a function f is
defined on only one side of a point a, then lim f (x) is identical to the one-sided limit, if it exists. For
√ x→a √ √
example, if f (x) = x, then f is only defined to the right of zero. Hence, lim x = lim+ x = 0.
x→0
√ √ x→0
Of course, lim− x does not exist, since x is not defined when x < 0. On the other hand, consider
x→0 r
1
the function g(x) = , which is defined only for x > 0. In this case, lim+ g(x) does not exist and,
x x→0
therefore lim g(x) does not exist.
x→0

24
3.3 Theorems on Limits
1. If f (x) = c, a constant, then lim f (x) = c.
x→a

2. If lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B, then

x→a x→a

(a) lim kf (x) = kA, k being any constant.

x→a
(b) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = A ± B.
x→a x→a x→a
(c) lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = AB.
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)A

(d) lim = x→a = , provided B 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) B
x→a

Example: If lim f (x) exists, prove that it must be unique.

x→a

Solution: Must show that if lim f (x) = A1 and lim f (x) = A2 , then A1 = A2 .
x→a x→a

By hypothesis, given any ε > 0 we can find δ > 0 such that

ε
|f (x) − A1 | < when 0 < |x − a| < δ
2
ε
|f (x) − A2 | < when 0 < |x − a| < δ.
2
Then
ε ε
|A1 − A2 | = |A1 − f (x) + f (x) − A2 | ≤ |A1 − f (x)| + |f (x) − A2 | < + = ε.
2 2
i.e., |A1 −A2 | is less than any positive number ε (however small) and so must be zero. Thus A1 = A2 .

Example: Given lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B. Prove that

x→a x→a

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = A + B

x→a x→a x→a

Solution: We must show that for any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0 such that |(f (x)+g(x))−(A+B)| < ε
when 0 < |x − a| < δ.

By hypothesis, given ε > 0, we can find δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 such that
ε
|f (x) − A| < when 0 < |x − a| < δ1
2
ε
|g(x) − B| < when 0 < |x − a| < δ2 .
2
Then
ε ε
|(f (x) + g(x)) − (A + B)| ≤ |f (x) − A| + |g(x) − B| < + = ε,
2 2
25
when 0 < |x − a| < δ where δ is chosen as the smaller of δ1 and δ2 .

You Try It: Given lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B. Prove that
x→a x→a

lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = AB

x→a x→a x→a
.

3.4 Special Limits

sin x 1 − cos x
1. lim = 1, lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x
 x
1 1
2. lim 1 + = e, lim+ (1 + x) x = e.
x→∞ x x→0

ex − 1 x−1
3. lim = 1, lim = 1.
x→0 x x→1 ln x

3.5 Methods of Calculating lim f (x)

x→a

If f (a) is defined

If x = a is in the domain of f (x) and a is not an endpoint of the domain, and f (x) is defined by a
single expression, then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

Example: Find lim (x + 3).

x→1

Solution: lim (x + 3) = 1 + 3 = 4.
x→1

1
Example: Find lim .
x→1 x + 2

1 1 1
Solution: lim = = .
x→1 x + 2 1+2 3

Example: Find lim (x2 − 7x + 5).

x→8

Solution: lim (x2 − 7x + 5) = 82 − 7(8) + 5 = 13.

x→8

26
 x2 − 4
Example: Find lim .
x→2 x − 2

x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
Solution: lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2 x→2

Functions Defined By More Than One Expression

Suppose that f (x) is defined by one expression for x < a and by a different expression for x > a.

|x|
Example: Show that lim does not exist.
x→0 x

Solution: Notice that  x

|x|  x = 1, if x ≥ 0
= x
x  − = −1, if x < 0.
x
i.e., you seek a limit at x = 0 of a function that is defined differently on either side of x = 0.

|x|
lim− = lim (−1) = −1.
x→0 x x→0−
|x|
lim+ = lim (1) = 1.
x→0 x x→0+

|x| |x| |x|

Since lim+ 6= lim− , then lim does not exist.
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x

sin 3x
Example: Find lim .
x→0 x
 
sin 3x sin 3x
Solution: Since =3 . Then
x 3x
 
sin 3x sin 3x sin 3x
lim = lim 3 = 3 lim = 3(1) = 3.
x→0 x x→0 3x x→0 3x

1 − cos 2x
Example: Find lim .
x→0 sin 3x
      
1 − cos 2x 1 − cos 2x 3x 1 2 1 − cos 2x 3x
Solution: Since = 2x = . Then
sin 3x 2x sin 3x 3x 3 2x sin 3x
   
1 − cos 2x 2 1 − cos 2x 3x 2
lim = lim lim = (0)(1) = 0.
x→0 sin 3x 3 x→0 2x x→0 sin 3x 3

27
 sin x
Example: Find limπ .
x→ 4 cos x

π


sin x sin 4

Solution: limπ = π
= 1.
x→ 4 cos x cos 4

1 − cos θ
You Try It: Show that lim = 0.
θ→0 θ

Limits at Infinity

It sometimes happen that as x → a, f (x) increases or decreases without bound. We write

lim f (x) = +∞ or lim f (x) = −∞. We say that, lim f (x) = +∞, if for each positive number
x→a x→a x→a
M we can find a positive number δ (depending on M in general) such that f (x) > M whenever
0 < |x − a| < δ.

Similarly, we say that lim f (x) = −∞, if for each positive number M we can find a positive number
x→a
δ (depending on M in general) such that f (x) < −M whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

1 1
Note that lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→∞ x x→−∞ x

Limits at Infinity of a Rational Function

pm (x)
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials, f (x) = , where m and n are the degrees
qn (x)
of the two polynomials.

1. If m < n, then lim f (x) = 0.

x→∞

28
 x+1
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ x2 + 4

Solution: The degree of the numerator is one, the degree of the denominator is two. Therefore
1
x+1 + 12 0+0
lim 2 = 0, since lim x x4 = = 0.
x→∞ x + 4 x→∞ 1 + 2 1 + 0
x

2. If m > n, then lim f (x) = ±∞ . (sign depends on the polynomials pm (x) and qn (x), if they
x→∞
are of the same sign as x gets larger, the quotient is positive, if they are of opposite signs, the
quotient is negative)
x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 4
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ 3x + 5
2
x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 4 1− x
+ x32 + x43 1
Solution: lim = lim 3 = = ∞.
x→∞ 3x + 5 x→∞
x2
+ x53 0
a
3. If m = n, then lim f (x) = , where a is the coefficient of xm in the numerator and b is the
x→∞ b
coefficient of xn in the denominator.
x3 − 4x + 1
Example: Find lim .
x→∞ 3x3 + 2x + 7

4 1
x3 − 4x + 1 1− x2
+ x3 1−0+0 1
Solution: lim 3
= lim 2 7 = = .
x→∞ 3x + 2x + 7 x→∞ 3 + + 3+0+0 3
x2 x3

a0 xm + a1 xm−1 + · · · + am
You Try It: What is lim , where a0 , b0 6= 0 and m and n are
x→∞ b0 xn + b1 xn−1 + · · · + bn
positive integers, when (a) m > n (b) m = n (c) m < n.
x−4
You Try It: Find lim √ .
x→4 x−2

3.6 Continuity

A function f (x) is continuous at a point x = a if

1. f (a) is defined.

2. lim f (x) exists.

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Notice that, for f (x) to be continuous at x = a, all three conditions must be satisfied. If at least
one condition fails, f is said to have a discontinuity at x = a. For example, f (x) = x2 + 1 is
continuous at x = 2 since lim f (x) = 5 = f (2). The first condition above implies that a function
x→2

29
 √
can be continuous only at points of its domain. Thus, f (x) = 4 − x2 is not continuous at x = 3
because f (3) is imaginary, i.e., not defined.

A function f is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x = a in its domain if

lim+ f (x) = f (a). It is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at x = a if lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a x→a
A function is continuous at an interior point x = a of its domain if and only if it is both right-
continuous and left-continuous at x = a.

Example: Determine whether f (x) = x2 + 1 is continuous at x = 1.

Solution: lim x2 + 1 = f (1) = 12 + 1 = 2. Therefore f (x) = x2 + 1 is continuous at x = 1.

x→1

|x|
Example: Determine whether f (x) = is continuous at x = 0.
x

Solution: Since f (0) is not defined, f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.

Example: Determine whether

|x|
(
f (x) = , if x 6= 0
x
0, if x = 0,

is continuous at x = 0.

Solution: f (0) now defined. Then

Then lim f (x) must be considered in two steps,

x→0

lim f (x) = lim (−1) = −1.

x→0− x→0−
lim f (x) = lim (1) = 1.
x→0+ x→0+

Sine the limits are not the same, lim f (x) does not exist and f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.
x→0

You Try It: Determine whether the function defined by

 2
 x, if x < 2
f (x) = 5, if x = 2
−x + 6, if x > 2,


is continuous at the point x = 2.

A function f (x) is discontinuous at x = a if one or more of the conditions for continuity fails
there.

30
 1
Example: (a) f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 2, because f (2) is not defined (has a zero
x−2
denominator) and because lim f (x) does not exist (equals ∞). The function is, however, continuous
x→2
everywhere except at x = 2, where it is said to have an infinite discontinuity.

x2 − 4
(b) f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 2 because f (2) is not defined (both numerator and
x−2
denominator are zero) and because lim f (x) = 4. The discontinuity here is called removable since
x→2
x2 − 4
it may be removed by redefining the function as f (x) = for x 6= 2 and f (2) = 4. (Note the
x−2
discontinuity in (a) cannot be removed because the limit also does not exist.)

3.7 The ε − δ Definition of Continuity

f (x) is continuous at x = a, if for any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0, such that, |f (x) − f (a)| < ε
whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

Example: Prove that f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 2.

Solution: Must show that, given any ε > 0, we can find δ > 0, such that |f (x)−f (2)| = |x2 −4| < ε
when |x − 2| < δ.

Choose δ ≤ 1, so that |x − 2| < 1 or 1 < x < 3 (x 6= 2). Then |x2 − 4| = |(x − 2)(x + 2)| =
|x − 2||x + 2| < δ|x + 2| < 5δ. Taking δ = min{1, 5ε } whichever is smaller, then we have |x2 − 4| < ε
whenever |x − 2| < δ.

You Try It: (a) Prove that f (x) = x is continuous at any point x = x0 .
(b) Prove that f (x) = 2x3 + x is continuous at any point x = x0 .

Theorems on Continuity

Theorem 1
f (x)
If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a, so are the functions f (x) ± g(x), f (x)g(x) and if
g(x)
g(x) 6= 0.

Theorem 2
The following functions are continuous in every finite interval (a) all polynomials (b) sin x and
cos x (c) ax , a > 0.

Theorem 3

31
If y = f (x) is continuous at x = a and z = g(y) is continuous at y = b and if b = f (a), then the
function z = g[f (x)] called a function of a function or composite function is continuous at x = a.

Briefly: A continuous function of a continuous function is continuous.

Theorem 4
If f (x) is continuous in a closed interval, it is bounded in the interval.

3.8 Tutorial 3
1. Find the domain ofreach of the following functions.
1 x x3 − 8
(i) √ (ii) (iii) 2
1−x 2−x x −4
2. Determine whether or not each of the following correspondences is a function.
(i) x2 + y = 1 (ii) x2 y 2 = 5 (iii) x2 y = 4 (iv) {(1, 5), (2, 5), (5, 1)}.

3. Let 
 3x − 1, x<0
f (x) = 0, x=0
2x + 5, x > 0,


Evaluate (i) lim f (x) (ii) lim f (x) (iii) lim+ f (x) (iv) lim− f (x) (v) lim f (x).
x→2 x→−3 x→0 x→0 x→0

3x + |x|
4. If f (x) = . Evaluate (i) lim f (x) (ii) lim f (x).
7x − 5|x| x→∞ x→−∞

5. Use the theorems on limits√ to evaluate

√ each of the following limits.
x3 − 8 3+x− 3 8x2 + 4
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim 2−x+2
(iv) lim (4x2 − x + 5)
x→0 x√ − 2 x→0 x x→∞ 2x x→2
x+4−2 a0 + a1 x + · · · + am x m (3x − 1)(2x + 3)
(v) lim (vi) lim (vii) lim
x→0 x x→∞ b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn x→∞ (5x − 3)(4x + 5)

6. Use the definition of a limit to prove that, lim (3x2 − 7x + 1) = 7

x→3

x2 − 4
 
2 1
7. Verify (i) lim =4 (ii) lim x cos = 0.
x→2 x − 2 x→0 x
8. Give the points of discontinuity of each of the following
 functions.
x 1
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) = x2 sin , f (0) = 0
(x − 2)(x − 4) x
p 1
(iii) f (x) = (x − 3)(6 − x), 3 ≤ x ≤ 6 (iv) f (x) = .
1 + 2 sin x

32
 9. Given that the function f : R → R be defined by
 2
 x − 4, x≥2
f (x) = 2ax + b, 0<x<2
 x
e , x ≤ 0,

is continuous at all points in R. Find the values of a and b.

10. Let f : R → R be the function defined by

 2
 x, x≥2
f (x) = ax + b, 1<x<2
2 − x, x ≤ 1,


where a and b are constants. If f is continuous on R, find the values a and b.

33
Chapter 4

Vectors and the Geometry of Space

A vector is a quantity that is characterized by magnitude and direction. We also use the
term length for magnitude. A scalar, on the other hand, is a quantity which has magnitude only.
To differentiate the types of quantities, let’s consider a typical vector, displacement or change
of position. In order to specify displacement, we need to know two things: how far? and in
what direction? In other words, we need to specify distance and the direction. Thus we see that
distance is a scalar whereas displacement is a vector.

Consider the following two situations:

34
 1. A complete stranger to Zimbabwe is in Harare and wants to travel to Masvingo. Is it sufficient
to simply tell them that Masvingo is 350 kilometers from Harare?

2. A well-informed Zimbabwean wants to travel from Harare to Masvingo. Will it be sufficient

to tell them that Masvingo is 350 kilometers from Harare?

Clearly, the information in the first case is not sufficient as the stranger would also want to know
the direction in which to travel. However, in the second case, it is assumed that the person already
has some idea of the location of Masvingo relative to Harare and so specifying only distance would
suffice.

The following are examples of vectors: force, displacement, acceleration, momentum and velocity .
However, the following quantities are scalars and not vectors: area, volume, distance, speed, energy,
work, electrical resistance, temperature, mass and time.

4.1 Basic Definitions and Notation

−→
Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP defining the direction, the magnitude of the
vector being indicated by the length of the arrow. The tail end O of the arrow is called the origin
or initial point of the vector, and the head P is called the terminal point or terminus. This arrow
−→
representing the vector is called a directed line segment. The length |OP | is the magnitude of the
line segment from O to P .
Q terminal point
3

initial point
P

Figure 4.1: Directed line segment

Vectors can be represented in text by bold-case letters, such as A, B, C and so on or lower-case

boldface letters such as a, b, c and so on. When written by hand, however, vectors are often
→
−
denoted by letters with arrows above them, such as → −
a , b and so on or a bar above, such as a, b
and so on or a bar below, such as a, b and so on. When the initial point of the vector is fixed, it is
called a fixed or localized vector, otherwise, it is a free vector.

35
4.2 Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector of unit length. A unit vector is sometimes denoted by eb or b

e . Therefore,

|b
e| = 1.

Any vector can be made into a unit vector by dividing it by its length, that is,
u
e= .
|u|
b

u
So is a unit vector in the direction of the vector u.
|u|

In three-dimensional space R3 , we denote the unit vectors in the positive x -axis, positive y-axis and
positive z -axis by i, j, k respectively. Thus the position vector of a point (x, y, z) is

xi + yj + zk.

In a similar way, the position vector r of a point (x, y) in two-dimensional space R2 is

xi + yj.

In the notation above, the numbers x, y, z are the components of the vectors.

We also denote vectors

  in R3 and R2 using column vectors. For example the vector xi + yj + zk
x  
3 2 x
in R is denoted by y and the vector xi + yj in R is denoted by
  .
y
z

4.3 Magnitude or Length of a Vector

The magnitude or length of a vector r is denoted by |r|. If a vector r = xi + yj + zk, then it can
be easily shown by use of Pythagoras’ theorem that
p
|r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
p √ √
For example if r = i − 2j + 2k, then the magnitude |r| = 12 + (−2)2 + 22 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9 = 3.
Example 4.3.1. Given A = 3i − 2j + k, B = 2i − 4j − 3k and C = −i + 2j + 2k, find the magnitudes
of (i) C, (ii) A + B + C and (iii) 2A − 2B − 5C.
p
Solution: (i) |C| = | − i + 2j + 2k| = (−1)2 + 22 + 22 = 3.
(ii) A + B + C = 3i − 2j + k + 2i − 4j − 3k − i + 2j + 2k
p = (3 + 2 − 1)i +
√(−2 − 4√+ 2)j + (1 − 3 + 2)k =
4i − 4j + 0k. Then |A + B + C| = |4i − 4j + 0k| = 42 + (−4)2 = 32 = 4 2.
(iii) 2A − 3B − 5C = 2(3i − 2j +pk) − 3(2i − 4j − 3k) √ − 5(−i + 2j + 2k) = 5i − 2j + k. Then
2 2
|2A − 2B − 5C| = |5i − 2j + k| = 5 + (−2) + 1 = 30. 2

36
Example 4.3.2. Find the component form and magnitude of the vector A having initial point
(−2, 3, 1) and terminal point (0, −4, 4). Then find a unit vector in the direction of A.

Solution: The component form of A is

A = (0 − (−2), −4 − 3, 4 − 1) = (2, −7, 3)

which implies that its magnitude is

p √
|A| = 22 + (−7)2 + 32 = 62.

The unit vector in the direction of A is

 
A 1 2 −7 3
U= = √ (2, −7, 3) = √ ,√ ,√ .
|A| 62 62 62 62

4.4 Parallel Vectors

Two non-zero vectors A ans B are parallel if there is some scalar c such that A = cB.

Example 4.4.1. Vector A has initial point (2, −1, 3) and terminal point (−4, 7, 5). Which of the
following vectors is parallel to A? (i) B = (3, −4, −1) and (ii) C = (12, −16, 4).

Solution: Writing A in component form

A = (−4 − 2, 7 − (−1), 5 − 3) = (−6, 8, 2).

(i) Because B = (3, −4, −1) = − 12 (−6, 8, 2) = − 21 A, then B is parallel to A.

(ii) In this case, you want to find a scalar c such that

(12, −16, 4) = c(−6, 8, 2)

12 = −6c ⇒ c = −2
−16 = 8c ⇒ c = −2
4 = 2c ⇒ c = 2.

Because there is no c for which the equation has a solution, the vectors are not parallel.

Definition
Two or more vectors are said to be collinear vectors, when they are along the same lines or parallel
lines.

Theorem 4.4.1. Let a and b be non-zero and non-collinear vectors. Then xa + yb = 0 implies
that x = y = 0.

37
Proof. Suppose xa + yb = 0 where x 6= 0. This means that a = −( xy )b. Thus the vectors a and
b are parallel. In other words they are parallel to the same line or are collinear. Contradiction.
Hence x must be equal to zero and so yb = 0. Therefore y = 0 as b 6= 0.
Theorem 4.4.2. Let a and b be non-zero and non-collinear vectors. Then x1 a + y1 b = x2 a + y2 b
implies that x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

The proof of this theorem is left as an exercise for you.

4.5 Laws of Vector Algebra

If A, B and C are vectors and m and n are scalars, then

(i) A + B = B + A Commutative Law for Addition.

(ii) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C Associative Law of Addition.
(iii) m(nA) = mnA = n(mA) Associative Law for Multiplication.
(iv) (m + n)A = mA + nA Distributive Law.
(v) m(A + B) = mA + mB Distributive Law.

4.6 The Dot or Scalar Product

So far we have studied two operations with vectors, vector addition and multiplication by a scalar,
each of which yield another vector. In this section you will study a third vector operation, called
the dot product, this product yields a scalar, rather than a vector.

The dot or scalar product of two vectors A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k, denoted

by A · B (read A dot B) is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of
the angle θ between them, that is,
A · B = |A||B| cos θ = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3
where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
Example 4.6.1. Given A = 2i + 4j + 6k and B = i − 3j + 2k. Compute the scalar product of A
and B.

Solution: From the definition, the scalar product is given by

A · B = (2) · (1) + (4) · (−3) + (6)(2) = 2 − 12 + 12 = 2.

38
The following laws are valid

(i) A · B = B · A Commutative Law for Dot Products.

(ii) A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C Distributive Law.

(iii) m(A · B) = (mA) · B = A · (mB) = (A · B)m, where m is a scalar.

(iv) i · i = j · j = k · k = 1, i · j = j · k = k · i = 0.

(v) If A · B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are perpendicular.

4.6.1 Angle Between Two Vectors

If θ is the angle between two non-zero vectors A and B, then

A·B
cos θ = .
|A||B|

9
θ
-
B

Figure 4.2: The angle between two vectors

4.6.2 Definition of Orthogonal Vectors

The vectors A and B are orthogonal if A · B = 0. Two non-zero vectors are orthogonal if and
π
only if the angle between them is θ = .
2
39
Example 4.6.2. For A = 3i − j + 2k, B = −4i + 2k, C = i − j − 2k and D = 2i − k, find the angles
between the following pairs of vectors. (i) A and B (ii) A and C (iii) B and D.

Solution:
A·B −12 + 4 −8 −4
(i) cos θ = = √ √ = √ √ = √ . Because A · B < 0,
 |A||B|
 14 20 2 14 5 70
−4
θ = cos−1 √ = 2.069radians.
70
A·C 3+1−4 0
(ii) cos θ = = √ √ = √ = 0. Because A · C = 0, A and C are orthogonal.
|A||C| 14 6 84
π
Furthermore, θ = .
2
B·D −8 + 0 − 2 −10
(iii) cos θ = = √ √ =√ = −1. Consequently, θ = π.
|B||D| 20 5 100

Exercise
Prove that a parallelogram ABCD is a rhombus if and only if its diagonals are orthogonal.

4.7 The Cross or Vector Product

Many applications in physics, engineering and geometry involve finding a vector in space that is
orthogonal to two given vectors. In this section we will study a product that will yield such a vector.
The cross or vector product of A and B is a vector C = A × B (read A cross B),

A × B = |A||B| sin θn,

where θ is the angle between the vectors, and the unit vector n is perpendicular to both A and B,
with A, B and n forming a right-handed system.

The following laws are valid.

(i) A × B = −B × A Anticommutative Law.

(ii) A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C Distributive Law.

(iii) m(A × B) = (mA) × B = A × (mB) = (A × B)m, where m is a scalar.

(iv) i × i = j × j = k × k = 0, i × j = k, j × k = i, k × i = j.

(v) If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k, then

 
 i j k 
 
A × B = A1 A2 A3  .
B1 B2 B3 

40
 (vi) The magnitude of A × B is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B.
(vii) If A × B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are parallel.

B
|B| sin θ

y θ
-
A

Figure 4.3: The vectors A and B form adjacent sides of a parallelogram

Example 4.7.1. Given A = i − 2j + k and B = 3i + j − 2k, find the following. (i) A × B
(ii) B × A (iii) B × B.

Solution:
(i)  
i j k       
  −2 1  1 1  1 −2
A × B = 1 −2 1  =  i − 
3 −2 j + 3 1  k = 3i + 5j + 7k.
  
3 1 −2 1 −2

(ii)  
i j k       
 1 −2 3 −2 3 1 
B × A = 3 1 −2 =  i − 
1 1  j + 1 −2 k = −3i − 5j − 7k.
  
1 −2 1  −2 1 

(iii)  
i j k 
 
B × B = 3 1 −2 = 0.
3 1 −2
Example 4.7.2. Find the area of the parallelogram determined by A = i+j−3k and B = −6j+5k.

Solution:
 
i j k √

  p
A × B = 1 1 −3 = −13i − 5j − 6k = (−13)2 + 52 + 62 = 230
0 −6 5 

which is the desired area.

Example 4.7.3. Find a unit vector that is orthogonal to both A = i − 4j + k and B = 2i + 3j.

Solution: The cross product A × B is orthogonal to both A and B.

 
 i j k
 
A × B = 1 −4 1  = −3i + 2j + 11k.
2 3 0 

41
 p √
Because |A × B| = (−3)2 + 22 + 112 = 134, a unit vector orthogonal to both A and B is
A×B 3 2 11
= −√ i+ √ j+ √ k.
|A × B| 134 134 134

4.8 The Scalar Triple Product

For vectors A, B and C in space, the dot product of A and B × C

A · (B × C)
is called the scalar triple product. The following laws are valid.

(i) A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) = volume of a parallelopiped having A, B and C

as edges.
If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k, B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k and C = C1 i + C2 j + C3 k, then
 
A1 A2 A3 

A · (B × C) = B1 B2 B3  .
 C1 C2 C3 

(ii) As a consequence, the volume of the parallelopiped is 0 if and only if the three vectors are
coplanar. That is, if the vectors A = (A1 , A2 , A3 ), B = (B1 , B2 , B3 ) and C = (C1 , C2 , C3 )
have the same initial point, then they lie in the same plane if and only if
 
A1 A2 A3 
 
A · (B × C) = B1 B2 B3  = 0.
 C1 C2 C3 
Example 4.8.1. Find the volume of the parallelopiped having A = 3i − 5j + k, B = 2j − 2k and
C = 3i + j + k as adjacent edges.

Solution:
 
3 −5 1       
  2 −2 0 −2 0 2 
V = |A · (B × C)| = 0 2 −2 = 3  −(−5) 
3 1 +(1) 3 1 = 3(4)+5(6)+1(−6) = 36.
  
3 1 1 1
1 

Example 4.8.2. Determine whether the four points A(−2, 0, 3), B(1, 0, 0), C(1, −3, 3) and D(4, 1, −2)
are coplanar.

−−→
Solution: We construct three vectors from the four points, a = AD = (6, 1, −5),
−→ −→
b = AB = (3, 0, −3), c = AC = (3, −3, 0). The scalar product is
 
6 1 −5
 
a · (b × c) = 3 0 −3 = 6(−9) − (1)(9) + (−5)(−9) = −18 6= 0.
3 −3 0 
Hence not coplanar.

42
4.9 The Vector Triple Product

Let A, B and C be a triple of vectors. Then the vector

A × (B × C)

is called the triple vector product of A, B and C in that order. The evaluation of a vector triple
product can be made easier using the vector identity

A × (B × C) = (A · C)B − (A · B)C.

Example 4.9.1. Given the vectors A = i + 3j − k, B = −2i + j − 5k and C = 3i − 2j + 7k. Verify

the vector identity
A × (B × C) = (A · C)B − (A · B)C.

Solution: Starting with the left hand side

 
 i j k 
 
B × C = −2 1 −5 = −3i − j + k.
 3 −2 7 
 
 i j k 
 
A × (B × C) =  1 3 −1 = 2i + 2j + 8k.
−3 −1 1 
The right hand side gives

(A · C) = 3(1) + 3(−2) + 7(−1) = −10, (A · C)B = −10(−2i + j − 5k) = 20i − 10j + 50k.

(A · B) = (−2)(1) + (3)(1) + (−5)(−1) = 6, (A · B)C = 6(3i − 2j + 7k) = 18i − 12j + 42k.

Then
(A · C)B − (A · B)C = (20 − 18)i + (−10 + 12)j + (50 − 42)k = 2i + 2j + 8k.

43
4.10 Tutorial 4
1. Find a, b and c if (a + b − c)i + (c − 1)j + (a + c)k = 0.

2. Which of the following are unit vectors?

(i) i (ii) i + 21 j (iii) −j + k (iv) √12 i + √1 j.
2

3. If |A| = 3. What is |4A|?

4. Determine the unit vector having the same direction as 4i + 3j.

5. Let a and b be non-zero and non-collinear vectors. Prove that if x1 a + y1 b = x2 a + y2 b then

x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

6. Find the scalar product of 3i + 8j − 2k and 5i + j + 2k.

7. Find the angle between 2i and 3i + 4j.

8. Prove that a parallelogram ABCD is a rhombus if and only if its diagonals are perpendicular
bisectors of each other.

9. If A = i − j and B = −j + 2k, show that (A + B) · (A − 2B) = −9.

10. Find A × B if
(i) A = 3i − j + 2k and B = i + j − 4k (ii) A = 2i + j + 7k and B = 3i + j − k
(iii) A = 3i and B = j (iv) A = i + j + k and B = 2i + j − k.

11. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both A = 3i + j and B = 2i − j − 5k.

12. If A and B are unit vectors, show that |A × B|2 = 1 − (A · B)2 .

13. Show that A = (cos θ, sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ) is a unit vector.

14. If A = 3i − j − 4k, B = −2i + 4j − 3k, C = i + 2j − k, find (i) 2A − B + 3C (ii) |A + B + C|

(iii) |3A − 2B + 4C| (iv) a unit vector parallel to 3A − 2B + 4C.

15. Determine the value of a so that A = 2i + aj + k and B = 4i − 2j + 2k are perpendicular.

16. Show that the vectors A = 3i − 2j + k, B = i − 3j + 5k and C = 2i + j − 4k form a right

angled triangle.

17. Show that |A × B|2 + (A · B)2 = |A|2 |B|2 .

18. Find the area of a parallelogram with edges A = 3i + j − 2k and B = i − 3j + 4k.

19. Find the area of the triangle having vertices at P (1, 3, 2), Q(2, −1, 1) and R(−1, 2, 3).

20. If A = 2i + j − 3k and B = i − 2j + k, find a vector of magnitude 5 perpendicular to both A

and B.

21. Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose edges are represented by A = 2i − 3j + 4k,
B = i + 2j − k and C = 3i − j + 2k.

44
Chapter 5

Complex Numbers and Polynomials

5.1 Introduction

No one person invented complex numbers, but controversies surrounding the use of these numbers
existed in the sixteenth century. In their quest to solve polynomial equations by formulas involving
radicals, early dabblers in mathematics were forced to admit that there were other kinds of numbers

45
besides positivepintegers. Equations such as x2 + 2x + 2 = 0 and x3 = 6x + 4 that yielded solutions
√ √ p √
1 + −1 and 3 2 + −2 + 3 2 − −2 caused particular consternation within the community √ of
√ mathematical scholars because everyone knew that there are no numbers such as −1
fledgling
and −2, numbers whose square is negative. Such numbers exist only in one’s imagination, or
as one philosopher opined, “the imaginary, (the) bosom child of complex mysticism.” Over time
these imaginary numbers did not go away, mainly because mathematicians as a group are tenacious
and some are even practical. A famous mathematician held that even though they exist in our
imagination, nothing prevents us from employing them in calculations. Mathematicians also hate
to throw anything away. After all, a memory still lingered that negative numbers at first were
branded fictitious. The concept of number evolved over centuries; gradually the set of numbers grew
from just positive integers to include rational numbers, negative numbers, and irrational numbers.
But in the eighteenth century the number concept took a gigantic evolutionary step forward when
the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss put the so-called imaginary numbers or complex
numbers, as they were now beginning to be called on a logical and consistent footing by treating
them as an extension of the real number system.

5.2 Complex Numbers

The set of all complex numbers is usually denoted by C. Since x2 ≥ 0 for every real number, x, the
equation
x2 + 1 = 0
has no real solutions.

Introduce the imaginary number 1 , √

i= −1
which is assumed to have the property
√
i2 = ( −1)2 = −1.

Complex numbers are usually written in the form a + bi where a and b are real numbers or can be
regarded as the ordered pair (a, b).

Ordered Pair Equivalent Notation

(3, 4) 3 + 4i
(0, 1) 0+i
(2, 0) 2 + 0i
(4, −2) 4 + (−2)i

Geometrically, a complex number can be viewed either as a point or vector in the xy−plane.
1
was first used by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler in 1777.

46
Let us denote
z = a + bi.
The real number a is called the real part of z and the real number b is called the imaginary part
of z.

These numbers are denoted Re(z) and Im(z) respectively.

Example 5.2.1. Re(4 − 3i) = 4 and Im(4 − 3i) = −3.

When complex numbers are represented geometrically in the xy-coordinate system, the x-axis is
called the real axis, the y-axis, the imaginary axis, and the plane is called the complex plane.
Definition 5.2.1. Two complex numbers a + bi and c + di are defined to be equal, when
a + bi = c + di if a = c and b = d.

Numbers of the form where a = 0, then a + bi reduces to 0 + bi = bi, these complex numbers which
correspond to points on the imaginary axis, are called purely imaginary numbers. For example
z = 8i is a purly imaginary number.

5.2.1 Operations

Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.

(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.
(a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i.
k(a + bi) = (ka) + (kb)i, k ∈ R. (multiplication by a real number)
Because (−1)z + z = 0, we denote (−1)z as −z and call it the negative of z.
Example 5.2.2. If z1 = 4 − 5i, z2 = −1 + 6i, find z1 + z2 , z1 − z2 , 3z1 and −z2 .

Solution:
z1 + z2 = (4 − 5i) + (−1 + 6i) = (4 − 1) + (−5 + 6)i = 3 + i.
z1 − z2 = (4 − 5i) − (−1 + 6i) = (4 + 1) + (−5 − 6)i = 5 − 11i.
3z1 = 3(4 − 5i) = 12 − 15i.
−z2 = −1(z2 ) = (−1)(−1 + 6i) = 1 − 6i.

Multiplying two complex numbers as (a + bi)(c + di), treating i2 = −1, this yields
(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + bdi2 + adi + bci = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.
Example 5.2.3. 1. (3 + 2i)(4 + 5i) = (3 · 4 − 2 · 5) + (3 · 5 + 2 · 4)i = 2 + 23i.
2. i2 = (0 + i)(0 + i) = (0 · 0 − 1 · 1) + (0 · 1 + 1 · 0)i = −1.

47
5.2.2 Rules of Complex Arithmetic

Given that z1 , z2 , z2 ∈ C, then

1. z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 .

2. z1 z2 = z2 z1 .

3. z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .

4. z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 .

5. z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .

6. 0 + z = z.

7. z + (−z) = 0.

8. 1 · z = z

5.3 Modulus, Complex Conjugate and Division

5.3.1 Complex Conjugate

If z = a + bi, is any complex number, then the conjugate of z denoted by z is defined as

z = a − bi.

Geometrically, z is the reflection of z about the axis.

Example 5.3.1. 1. z = 3 + 2i, then z = 3 − 2i.

2. z = −4 − 2i, then z = −4 + 2i.

3. z = 4, then z = 4.

So z = z if and only if z is a real number.

48
5.3.2 Modulus of a Complex Number

Definition 5.3.1. The modulus of a complex number z = a + bi, denoted |z|, is defined by
√
|z| = a2 + b2 .

If b = 0, then z = a is a real number, and

√ √
|z| = a2 + 02 = a2 = |a|.
So the modulus of a real number is simply its modulus value.
Example 5.3.2. Find |z| if z = 3 − 4i.
p √
Solution: |z| = 32 + (−4)2 = 25 = 5.
Theorem 5.3.1. For any complex number
√
zz = |z|2 or |z| = zz.

Proof. If z = a + bi, then

zz = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − abi + bai − b2 i2
= a2 + b 2
= |z|2 .

 
 z1  |z1 |
The modulus of a complex number z has the additional properties |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and   = .
z2 |z2 |

5.3.3 Division of Complex Numbers

For division
z1 z1 z 2
= .
z2 |z2 |2
3 + 4i
Example 5.3.3. Express in the form a + bi.
1 − 2i

Solution:
3 + 4i (3 + 4i)(1 + 2i)
=
1 − 2i (1 − 2i)(1 + 2i)
3 + 6i + 4i + 8i2
=
1 + 2i − 2i − 4i2
−5 + 10i
=
5
= −1 + 2i.

49
5.3.4 Properties of the Conjugate

Theorem 5.3.2. For any complex numbers z, z1 and z2 , then

(a) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .
(b) z1 − z2 = z1 − z2 .
(c) z1 · z2 = z1 · z2 .
 
z1 z1
(d) = .
z2 z2
(e) z = z.

Proof. (a) Let z1 = a1 + b1 i and z2 = a2 + b2 i, then

z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i
= (a1 + a2 ) − (b1 + b2 )i
= (a1 − b1 i) + (a2 − b2 i)
= z1 + z2 .

1 √ 1
Since |z| = (zz) 2 = a2 + b2 = ((Re(z))2 + (Im(z)2 )) 2 , then
p p
Re(z) ≤ |Re(z)| = (Re(z))2 ≤ (Re(z))2 + (Im(z))2 = |z|.

Similarly,
Im(z) ≤ |Im(z)| ≤ |z|.
For any two complex numbers, z1 and z2 , we have that
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
This is called the triangle inequality.

Proof.
|z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 )
= z1 z1 + 2Re(z1 z2 ) + z2 z2 .
Using the fact that 2Re(z1 z2 ) ≤ 2|z1 z2 | = 2|z1 ||z2 |, we get
|z1 + z2 |2 ≤ |z1 |2 + 2|z1 ||z2 | + |z2 |2 = (|z1 | + |z2 |)2 .
Taking square roots the result follows, that is
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

50
5.4 Polar Representation of Complex Numbers

If z = x + iy is a non-zero complex number, r = |z| and θ measures the angle from the positive real
axis to the vector z,

x
6

x
>

y = r sin θ

θ
- y
x = r cos θ

Figure 5.1: Polar form

then
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ,
so that z = x + iy can be written as

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

This is called a polar form of z. The angle θ is called an argument of z and is denoted by
θ = arg z. The argument of z is not uniquely determined because we can add or subtract any
multiple of 2π from θ to produce another value of the argument.

One value of the argument in radians that satisfies −π < θ ≤ π is called the principal argument
of z and is denoted by θ = Arg z.
√
Example 5.4.1. Express z = 1 + 3i in polar form using the principal argument.

51
 q √ √ √
Solution: The value of r is r = |z| = (1)2 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2. Since x = 1 and y = 3, it
√ √
follows that 1 = 2 cos θ and 3 = 2 sin θ. So cos θ = 12 and sin θ = 23 . The only value of θ that
satisfies these relations and meets the requirement −π, θ ≤ π is θ = π3 . The polar form of z is
 π π
z = 2 cos + i sin .
3 3

We now show how polar forms can be used to give geometric interpretations of multiplication and
division of complex numbers.

Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ). Multiplying, we obtain

z1 z2 = r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )].

Recall:

cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 .

sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 .

We obtain
z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )]
which is a polar form of the complex number with modulus r1 r2 and argument θ1 + θ2 . Thus, we
have shown that
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 .
Also
z1 r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )] ,
z2 r2
from which, it follows that  
 z1  |z1 |
 =
 z2  |z2 | , if z2 6= 0

and  
z1
arg = arg z1 − arg z2 .
z2

5.5 De Moivre’s Formula

If n is a positive integer and z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), then

z n = z · z · z · · · z = rn [cos (θ + θ + · · · + θ) +i sin (θ + θ + · · · + θ)]

| {z } | {z }
n terms n terms

or
z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ). (5.1)

52
In the special case, if r = 1, we have for z = (cosθ + i sin θ), so that (5.1) becomes
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
which is called the De Moivre’s formula.

5.5.1 Application of De Moivre’s Formula

It is used to obtain roots of complex numbers

Recall from algebra that −2 and 2 are said to be square roots of the number 4 because (−2)2 = 4
and (2)2 = 4. In other words, the two square roots of 4 are distinct solutions of the equation w2 = 4.

If n is a positive integer and z is any complex number, then we define the nth root of z to be any
complex number that satisfies the equation
wn = z (5.2)
1
and denote the nth root of z by z n .

Let w = ρ(cos α + i sin α) and z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), then

ρn (cos nα + i sin nα) = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
Comparing the moduli of the two sides, we see that
√
ρn = r or ρ = n
r
√
where r denotes the real positive nth root of r. In order to have cos nα = cos θ and sin nα = sin θ,
n

the angles nα and θ must be either equal or differ by a multiple of 2π, that is
nα = θ + 2kπ, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
θ 2kπ
α = + , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
n n
Thus, the values of w = ρ(cos α + i sin α) that satisfy (5.2) are given by
√
    
θ 2kπ θ 2kπ
n
w = r cos + + i sin + , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
n n n n
Although there are infinitely many values of k, it can be shown that k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 produces
distinct values of w satisfying (5.2), but all other choices of k yield duplicates of these.
Example 5.5.1. Find all the cube roots of −8.

Solution: Since −8 lies on the negative real axis, we can use π as an argument.
Here r = |z| = | − 8| = 8, so a polar form of −8 is
−8 = 8(cos π + i sin π).

53
Here n = 3, hence
√
    
1 3 π 2kπ π 2kπ
(−8) = 3 8 cos + + i sin + , k = 0, 1, 2.
3 3 3 3
Thus, the cube roots of −8 are
√ !
π π 1 3 √
k = 0, 2 cos + i sin = 2 + i = 1 + 3i.
3 3 2 2
k = 1, 2(cos π + i sin π) = 2(−1) = −2.
√ !
√
 
5π 5π 1 3
k = 2, 2 cos + i sin = 2 − i = 1 − 3i.
3 3 2 2

5.6 Applications of Complex Numbers

5.6.1 The Quadratic Formula

Example 5.6.1. Solve the quadratic equation z 2 + (1 − i)z − 3i = 0.

Solution: From the quadratic formula, we have

1
−(1 − i) + [(1 − i)2 − 4(−3i)] 2
z =
2
1h 1
i
= −1 + i + (10i) 2 .
2
1 √
We compute (10i) 2 with r = 10 and θ = π2 and n = 2 for k = 0 and k = 1. The two square roots
of 10i are
√  π √ √ √
 
π 1 1
w0 = 10 cos + i sin = 10 √ + √ i = 5 + 5i
4 4 2 2
√ √ √ √
   
5π 5π 1 1
w1 = 10 cos + i sin = 10 − √ − √ i = − 5 − 5i.
4 4 2 2
√ √ √ √
Therefore the two values are z1 = 21 [−1 + i + ( 5 + 5i)] and z2 = 12 [−1 + i + (− 5 − 5i)]. These
solutions written in the form z = a + bi, are
1 √ 1 √ 1 √ 1 √
z1 = ( 5 − 1) + ( 5 + 1)i and z2 = − ( 5 + 1) − ( 5 − 1)i.
2 2 2 2

5.6.2 Roots of Polynomials

A polynomial in x is a function of the form

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

54
Example 5.6.2. x3 − 2x + 4.

A number (real or complex) a is said to be a root of the polynomial p(x) if p(a) = 0.

Example 5.6.3. x = 1 is a root of x2 − 2x + 1, since 12 − 2 + 1 = 0.

A number a (real or complex) is a root of the polynomial p(x) if and only if (x − a) is a factor of
p(x). It may be the case that you pull more than one factor (x − a) out of the polynomial. In such
cases a is said to be a multiple root of p(x).

A root is called a simple root if it produces one factor.

5.6.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Theorem 5.6.1 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). Let p(x) be any polynomial of degree n.
Then p(x) can be factorized into a product of a constant and n factors of the form (x − a), where
a may be real or complex.

Suppose the complex number z is a root of the polynomial, then the complex conjugate z is also a
root.

Example 5.6.4. Let p(z) = z 4 − 4z 3 + 9z 2 − 16z + 20. Given that 2 + i is a root, express p(z) as
a product of real quadratic factors.

Solution: Given that 2 + i is a root, it follows that 2 − i must also be a root and so the quadratic

(z − (2 + i))(z − (2 − i)) = z 2 − 4z + 5

must be a factor. Dividing the given polynomial by this factor gives

p(z) = z 4 − 4z 3 + 9z 2 − 16z + 20 = (z 2 − 4z + 5)(z 2 + 4).

Example 5.6.5. Solve z 3 +3z 2 +2z −6 = 0 and express the left hand side as a product of irreducible
factors.

Solution: Since the equation is a polynomial equation of odd degree there is at least one real
solution. To find that solution by trial and error the factors of the constant terms are substituted
into the polynomial. The factors of 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6.

Substituting z = 1 gives
1+3+2−6=0

55
 z 3 + 3z 2 + 2z + 6
so z = 1 is a solution and (z − 1) is a factor. So = z 2 + 4z + 6 and the other
√ z−1
solutions are z = −2 ± 2i and so

z 3 + 3z 2 + 2z − 6 = (z − 1)(z 2 + 4z + 6)

as a product of irreducible real factors.

Exercise 5.6.1. Express z 5 − 1 as a product of real linear and quadratic factors.

5.7 Tutorial 5
1. Given that z1 = 3 − 8i and z2 = −7 + i, find
(i) iz1 + 2z2 (ii) z1 + z2

2. Express each of the following complex numbers in polar form and represent each number on
an Argand diagram:
√ 2
(i) −1 − i (ii) 3 − 3 3i (iii) −2 − √ i
2
2+i 1
3. If z = , find the real and imaginary parts of z + .
1−i z
z−i
(a) Let z ∈ C, and let w = .
z+i
i. Evaluate w when z = 0, and when z = 1.
ii. Let z = β where β ∈ R. Show that for any such z the corresponding w
always has unit modulus.
(b) i. Express the complex number z = 24 + 7i in polar form.
1
ii. Find the four values of z 4 in exponential form, and plot them on an
Argand diagram.

4. Show that cos 6φ = 32 cos6 φ − 48 cos4 φ + 18 cos2 φ − 1.

5. Consider the polynomial

p(z) = z 4 − 3z 3 + rz 2 + sz + t,
where r, s, and t are real constants. Given that the two roots of p(z) are 2 and 1 + 2i,
determine the values of r, s and t.
√
6. Find all values of z for which z 4 + 2 3i + 2 = 0.

56
Chapter 6

Theory of Matrices

57
6.1 Matrices

Definition 6.1.1. A matrix over a field K (elements of K are called numbers or scalars) is a
rectangular array of scalars presented in the following form
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
A =  ..
 
.. .. 
 . . ··· . 
am1 am2 · · · amn

The rows of such a matrix are the m horizontal list of scalars, that is

(a11 , a12 , · · · , a1n ), (a21 , a22 , · · · , a2n ), · · · , (am1 , am2 , · · · , amn )

and the columns of A are the n vertical list of scalars,

     
a11 a12 a1n
 a21   a22   a2n 
     
 a31   a32 
,  , · · · ,  a3n  .
 

 ..   ..   .. 
 .   .   . 
am1 am2 amn

The element aij , called the ij-entry or ij-element appears in row i and column j. Denote a matrix
simply by A = [aij ].

A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m by n matrix, written m × n. The pair of
numbers m and n are called the size of the matrix.

Two matrices are equal, written A = B, if they have the same size and if corresponding elements
are equal.
Example 6.1.1. Find x, y, z, t such that
   
x + y 2z + t 3 7
= .
x−y z−t 1 5

Solution: By definition of equality of matrices, the four corresponding entries must be equal. Thus

x + y = 3, 2z + t = 7, x − y = 1, z − t = 5.

Solving the above system of equations yield

x = 2, y = 1, z = 4, t = −1.

A matrix whose entries are all zero is called a zero matrix.

58
Example 6.1.2.  
0 0  
A= , P = 0 0 .
0 0

Matrices whose entries are all real numbers are called real matrices and are said to be matrices
over R. Matrices whose entries are all complex numbers are called complex matrices and are
said to be matrices over C.

6.2 Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Let A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] be two matrices with the same size, say m × n matrices. The sum of
A and B, written A + B, is the matrix obtained by adding corresponding elements from A and B,
that is  
a11 + b11 a12 + b12 · · · a1n + b1n
 a21 + b21 a22 + b22 · · · a2n + b2n 
A+B = .
 
.. .. ..
 . . ··· . 
am1 + bm1 am2 + bm2 · · · amn + bmn
The product of a matrix A by a scalar k, written kA, is the matrix obtained by multiplying each
element of A by k, that is  
ka11 ka12 · · · ka1n
 ka21 ka22 · · · ka2n 
kA =  .. ..  .
 
..
 . . ··· . 
kam1 kam2 · · · kamn

Observe that A + B and kA are also m × n matrices.

We also define
−A = (−1)A and A − B = A + (−B).

The matrix −A s called the negative of matrix A and the matrix A − B is called the difference
of matrix A and B.

Example 6.2.1. Let    

1 −2 3 4 6 8
A= and B=
0 4 5 1 −3 −7
then    
1 + 4 −2 + 6 3+8 5 4 11
A+B = =
0 + 1 4 + (−3) 5 + (−7) 1 1 −2
and    
3(1) 3(−2) 3(3) 3 −6 9
3A = = .
3(0) 3(4) 3(5) 0 12 15

59
6.2.1 Properties

Theorem 6.2.1. Consider any matrices A, B and C (with same size) and scalars k and l. Then

(i) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).

(ii) A + 0 = 0 + A = A.

(iii) A + (−A) = (−A) + A = 0.

(iv) A + B = B + A.

(v) k(A + B) = kA + kB.

(vi) (k + l)A = kA + lA.

(vii) (kl)A = k(lA).

(viii) 1 · A = A.

Proof. (i) Suppose A = [aij ], B = [bij ] and C = [cij ].

Need to show that corresponding ij-entries in each side of each matrix equation are equal.

The ij-entry of A + B is aij + bij , hence the ij-entry of (A + B) + C is (aij + bij ) + cij . On the other
hand, the ij-entry of B + C is bij + cij and hence the ij-entry of A + (B + C) is aij + (bij + cij ).
However for scalars in K,
(aij + bij ) + cij = aij + (bij + cij ).
Thus (A+B)+C and A+(B +C) have identical ij-entries. Therefore (A+B)+C = A+(B +C).

Proof. (v) The ij-entry of A + B is aij + bij , hence k(aij + bij ) is the ij-entry of k(A + B). On
the other hand, the ij-entry of kA and kB are kaij and kbij respectively. Thus, kaij + kbij is the
ij-entry of kA + kB. However, for scalars in K,

k(aij + bij ) = kaij + kbij .

Thus, k(A + B) and kA + kB have identical ij-entries. Therefore, k(A + B) = kA + kB.

6.3 Matrix Multiplication

The product of matrices A and B, is written as AB. Consider the product AB, of a row matrix
A = [aij ] and a column matrix B = [bij ] with the same number of elements is defined to be the

60
scalar obtained by multiplying corresponding entries and adding, that is
 
b1
 b2  Xn
AB = [a1 , a2 , · · · , an ]  ..  = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn = ak b k .
 
. k=1
bn

The product AB is not defined when A and B have different number of elements.

Example 6.3.1.
 
3
[7, −4, 5]  2  = 7(3) + −4(2) + 5(−1) = 21 − 8 − 5 = 8.
−1

We now define matrix multiplication in general.

Definition 6.3.1. Suppose A = [aik ] and B = [bkj ] are matrices such that the number of columns
of A is equal to the number of rows of B, say, A is an m × p matrix and B is a p × n matrix. Then
the product AB is the m × n matrix whose ij-entry is obtained by multiplying the ith row of A by
the jth column of B, that is
 b   
a11 · · · · · · aip 11 · · · b1j · · · b1n c11 · · · · · · c1n

 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
 . . . .  . . . . .   . . . . 
 .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.
  .
 =  .. · · · c

 ai1 · · · · · · aip  

 . . . . . . ij · · · 
.. .. ..   .
   
 .. . . . .   . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . .  . . . . .   . . . . 
am1 · · · · · · amp bp1 · · · bpj · · · bpn cm1 · · · · · · cmn

where p
X
cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + aip bpj = aik bkj .
k=1

The product AB is not defined if A is an m × p matrix and B is an q × n matrix, where p 6= q.

Example 6.3.2. Find AB where

   
1 3 2 0 −4
A= and B= .
2 −1 5 −2 6

Solution: Since A is 2 × 2 and B is 2 × 3, the product AB is defined and AB is a 2 × 3 matrix.

Hence    
2 + 15 0 − 6 −4 + 18 17 −6 14
AB = = .
4 − 5 0 + 2 −8 − 6 −1 2 −14

61
    
1 2 5 6
Example 6.3.3. Suppose A = and . Then
3 4 0 −2
   
5+0 6−4 5 2
AB = =
15 + 0 18 − 8 15 10

and    
5 + 18 10 + 24 23 34
BA = = .
0−6 0−8 −6 −8

The above example shows that matrix multiplication is not commutative, that is, the products AB
and BA of matrices need not be equal. Matrix multiplication satisfies the following properties

Theorem 6.3.1. Let A, B and C be matrices, then, whenever the products and sums are defined.

(i) (AB)C = A(BC).

(ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC.

(iii) (B + C)A = BA + CA.

(iv) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB), where k is a scalar.

Proof. (i) (AB)C = A(BC).

Let A = [aij ], B = [bjk ], C = [ckl ] and let AB = S = [sik ] and BC = T = [tjl ]. Then
m
X n
X
sik = aij bjk and tjl = bjk ckl .
j=1 k=1

Multiplying S = AB by C, the il-entry of (AB)C is

n
X n X
X m
si1 c1l + si2 c2l + · · · + sim cnl = sik ckl = (aij bjk )ckl .
k=1 k=1 j=1

On the other hand, multiplying A by T = BC, the il-entry of A(BC) is

m
X m X
X n
ai1 t1l + ai2 t2l + · · · + a1m tnl = aij tjl = aij (bjk ckl ).
j=1 j=1 k=1

The above sums are equal, that is, corresponding elements in (AB)C and A(BC) are equal. Thus

(AB)C = A(BC).

Exercise 6.3.1. Prove that A(B + C) = AB + AC.

62
6.4 Transpose of a Matrix

Definition 6.4.1. The transpose of a matrix A, written At , the matrix obtained by writing the
columns of A, in order, as rows.
Example 6.4.1.   

 t 1 4 1
1 2 3
= 2 5 and [1 − 3 − 5]t = −3 .
4 5 6
3 6 −5

In other words, if A = [aij ] is an m × n matrix, then At = [bij ] is the n × m matrix, where bij = aji .
Observe that the transpose of a row vector is a column vector. Similarly, the transpose of a column
vector is a row vector. The basic properties of the transpose operation are
Theorem 6.4.1. Let A and B be matrices and let k be a scalar. Then, whenever the sum and
product are defined, we have

(i) (A + B)t = At + B t .
(ii) (At )t = A.
(iii) (kA)t = kAt .
(iv) (AB)t = B t At .

Proof. (iv) (AB)t = B t At .

Let A = [aik ] and B = [bkj]. Then the ij-entry of AB is

ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + aim bmj .

This is the ji-entry (reverse order) of (AB)t . Now column j of B becomes row j of B t and row i of
A becomes column i of At , Thus, the ij-entry of B t At is

[b1j , b2j , · · · , bmj ][ai1 ai2 aim ]t = b1j ai1 + b2j ai2 + · · · + bmj aim .

Thus, (AB)t = B t At , since the corresponding entries are equal.

6.5 Square Matrices

Definition 6.5.1. A square matrix is a matrix with the same number of rows as columns.

An n × n square matrix is said to be of order n and is sometimes called an n-square matrix.

63
Example 6.5.1. The following are square matrices of order 3.
   
1 2 3 2 −5 1
A = −4 −4 −4 and B = 0 3 −2 .
5 6 7 1 2 −4

6.6 Diagonal and Trace

Definition 6.6.1. Let A = [aij ] be an n-square matrix. The diagonal or main diagonal of A
consists of the elements with the same subscripts, that is
a11 , a22 , . . . , ann .
Definition 6.6.2. The trace of A, written tr(A), is the sum of the diagonal elements. Namely
tr(A) = a11 + a22 + · · · + ann .

6.6.1 Identity Matrix

The n-square identity or unit matrix, denoted by I, is the n-square matrix with 1’s on the diagonal
and 0’s elsewhere.

For any n-square matrix A,

AI = IA = A.
Example 6.6.1. The following are identity matrices of order 3 and 4.
 
  1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 and  1 0 0 .
0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1

6.7 Powers of Matrices

Let A be an n-square matrix over a field K. Powers of A are defined as follows

A2 = AA, A3 = A2 A, · · · , An+1 = An A and A0 = I.
 
1 2
Example 6.7.1. Suppose A = . Then
3 −4
    
2 1 2 1 2 7 −6
A = =
3 −4 3 −4 −9 22

64
and    
3 7 −6 1 2
2 −11 38
A =A A= = .
−9 22 3 −4 57 −106

6.8 Special Types of Square Matrices

6.8.1 Diagonal Matrix

A square matrix D = [dij ] is diagonal if its non diagonal entries are all zero.

Example 6.8.1.  
3 0 0  
4 0
A = 0 −7 0 and B= .
0 −5
0 0 2

6.8.2 Triangular Matrices

A square matrix A = [aij ] is upper triangular if all entries below the main diagonal are equal to
zero.

Example 6.8.2.  
  b11 b12 b13
a11 a12
A= and B =  0 b22 b23  .
0 a22
0 0 b33

A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix whose entries above the main diagonal are all zero.

Suppose A is a square matrix with real entries.

6.8.3 Symmetric Matrices

Definition 6.8.1. A matrix A is symmetric if

At = A.
  
2 −3 5 2 −3 5
Example 6.8.3. Let A = −3 6 7 , then At = −3 6 7 . Hence At = A, thus A is
5 7 −8 5 7 −8
symmetric.

65
6.8.4 Skew-Symmetric Matrices

Definition 6.8.2. A matrix A is skew-symmetric if

At = −A.

The diagonal elements of such matrix must be zero.

Example 6.8.4.  
0 3 −4
B = −3 0 5 .
4 −5 0

6.8.5 Orthogonal Matrices

Definition 6.8.3. A real matrix A is orthogonal if

At = A−1 ,

that is
AAt = At A = I.

A must necessarily be square and invertible.

6.9 Complex Matrices

Let A be a complex matrix. The conjugate of a complex matrix A, written A, is the matrix
obtained from A by taking the conjugate of each entry of A.

A∗ is used for the conjugate transpose of A, that is

A∗ = (A)t = (At ).

If A is real then A∗ = At .
 
  2 − 8i −6i
2 + 8i 5 − 3i 4 − 7i
Example 6.9.1. Let A = , then A∗ = 5 + 3i 1 + 4i.
6i 1 − 4i 3 + 2i
4 + 7i 3 − 2i

66
6.9.1 Hermitian Matrices

Definition 6.9.1. A complex matrix A is said to be Hermitian if

A∗ = A.

Skew-Hermitian Matrices

Definition 6.9.2. A complex matrix A is said to be skew-Hermitian if

A∗ = −A.

6.9.2 Unitary Matrices

Definition 6.9.3. A complex matrix A is unitary if

A∗ A−1 = A−1 A∗ = I, i.e., A∗ = A−1 .

6.10 Inversion of Matrices

Here we are dealing with square matrices.

Proposition 6.10.1. For every n × n matrix A,

AI = IA = A.

This raises the following question : Given an n×n matrix A, is it not possible to find another
n × n matrix B, such that AB = BA = I?

Definition 6.10.1. An n × n matrix A is said to be invertible, if there exists an n × n matrix B,

such that
AB = BA = I.
In this case, we sat that B is the inverse of A and write

B = A−1 .

Proposition 6.10.2. Suppose that A is an invertible n×n matrix. Then its inverse A−1 is unique.

67
Proof. Suppose that B satisfies the requirements for being the inverse of A. Then AB = I = BA.
It follows that
A−1 = A−1 I = A−1 (AB) = (A−1 A)B = IB = B.
Hence the inverse A−1 is unique.

Exercise 6.10.1. Suppose that A and B are invertible n × n matrices. Prove that

(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .

Exercise 6.10.2. Suppose that A is an invertible n × n matrix. Prove that

(A−1 )−1 = A.

6.11 Determinants

Each n-square matrix A = [aij ] is assigned a special scalar called the determinant of A, denoted
by det A or |A| or  
 a11
 a12 ··· a1n 
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
..  .

 .. ..
 .
 . ··· . 
am1 am2 ··· amn 

6.11.1 Determinants of Order 1 and 2

Determinants of order 1 and 2 are defined as

 
a a12 
|a11 | = a11 and  11 = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22 
 
5 3
Example 6.11.1. (a) det(27) = 27 and (b)  = 5(6) − 3(4) = 30 − 12 = 18.
4 6

6.12 Determinants of Order 3

Consider an arbitrary 3 × 3 matrix A = [aij ]. The determinant of A is defined as follows

 
a11 a12 a13 
 
det A = a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33 
= a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 − a13 a22 a31 − a12 a21 a33 − a11 a23 a32 .

68
A procedure for evaluating the determinants of 3 × 3 is called Sarrus’ Rule.

+ + +
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12

a21 a22 a23 a21 a22

a31 a32 a33 a31 a32

− − −
 
 
2 1 1 3 2 1
Example 6.12.1. Let A = 0 5 −2 and B = −4 5 −1. Find det A and det B.
1 −3 4 2 −3 4

 
2 1 1
det A = 0 5 −2 =
1 −3 4

+ + +
2 1 1 2 1

0 5 −2 0 5

1 −3 4 1 −3
− − −

= 2(5)(4) + 1(−2)(1) + 1(0)(−3) − (1)(0)(4) − (2)(−2)(−3) − (1)(5)(1) = 40 − 2 + 0 − 0 − 12 − 5 = 21.

 
3 2 1
det B = −4 5 −1 =
2 −3 4

+ + +
3 2 1 3 2

−4 5 −1 −4 5

2 −3 4 2 −3
− − −

69
= 3(5)(4) + 2(−1)(2) + 1(−4)(−3) − (2)(−4)(4) − (3)(−1)(−3) − (1)(5)(2) = 60 − 4 + 12 + 32 − 9 − 10
= 81.

Sarrus’ rule applies for evaluating the determinant of 3 × 3 matrices only.

6.13 Evaluation of Determinants of Any Order

6.13.1 Minors and Co-factors

Definition 6.13.1. If A = [aij ] is an n × n matrix, then the minor of the element aij denoted
by Mij and is defined ad the determinant of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) sub-matrix which is obtained by
deleting all the entries in the ith row and the jth column.

Example 6.13.1. For the matrix  

a11 a12 a13 
 
A = a21 a22 a23  .
a31 a32 a33 
The minor of a11 is  
a22 a23 
a32 a33  = M11 .
 

The minor of a12 is  

a21 a23 
a31 a33  = M12 .
 

The minor of a13 is  

a21 a22 
a31 a32  = M13 .
 

Definition 6.13.2. The co-factor of an element aij denoted by aij is defined as the product of
(−1)i+j and the minor of aij , that is

Aij = (−1)i+j Mij .

Co-factor of an element is merely the signed minor of the element. We emphasize Mij denotes a
matrix and Aij denotes a scalar.
 
a11 a12 a13   
   a 22 a 23

Example 6.13.2. If A = a21 a22 a23 , then the co-factor of a11 = A11 = (−1)1+1  
a31 a32 a33  a32 a33 
     
a22 a23  1+2 a21 a23 
  a21 a23 
= +  , the co-factor of a12 = A12 = (−1)  = −
 .
a32 a33  a31 a33  a31 a33 

70
6.14 Laplace Expansion of the Determinant

To compute the determinant of an n×n matrix we make use of the concept of co-factors and minors
to reduce the matrix to lower ones whose determinants we already know how to calculate.

The determinant of a square matrix A = [aij ] is equal to the sum of the products obtained by
multiplying the elements of any row (column) by their respective co-factors.
n
X
|A| = ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + · · · + ain Ain = aij Aij .
j=1

This expansion can be carried out along any row of the matrix in question and the value of the
determinant is the same.
 
3 −1 5
Example 6.14.1. Given that A = 0 4 −3. Find |A|.
2 1 2

Solution: Expanding along the first row, gives

     
1+1 4 −3 1+2 0 −3 1+3 0 4
     
det A = 3(−1)  + (−1)(−1)  + 5(−1) 
1 2  2 2  2 1
     
4 −3 0 −3
 + 5 0 4 
 
= 3  +
1 2  2 2  2 1 
= 3(8 + 3) + (0 + 6) + 5(−8)
= 3(11) + 6 − 40 = 33 + 6 − 40
= −1.

Expanding along the second row, gives

     
 −1 5   3 5   3 −1
det A = 0(−1)2+1   + 4(−1)2+2   + (−3)(−1)2+3  
1 2 2 2  2 1 
= 0 − 16 + 15
= −1.

Note that expanding by a row or column that contains zeros significantly reduces the number
of cumbersome calculations that need to be done. It is sensible to evaluate the determinant by
co-factor expansion along a row or column with the greatest number of zeros.
 
0 0 0 1
3 5 0 −1
Example 6.14.2. Given that A =  0 3 −2 5 . Find det A.


1 0 0 2

71
Solution:
 
3 5 0   
  5 0 
det A = − 0 3 −2 = − 
   
1 0 0  3 −2

= −(10) − 0
= 10.

The determinant of the identity matrix is 1. The determinant of a diagonal matrix D of order
n × n is given by the product of the elements on its main diagonal. The determinant of a triangular
matrix of order n × n is given by the product of the elements on its main diagonal.

6.15 Properties
1. For general matrices, A and B
|AB| = |A||B|.

2. In general, for an n × n matrix A,

det A = det At .

3. If A and B are n × n matrices, then

|AB| = |BA|.

4. In general, if two rows (columns) of an n × n matrix A are interchanged, then

det A = − det A.

5. If the elements of any rows (columns) of an n × n matrix A are multiplied by the same scalar
k, then the value of the determinant of the new matrix is k times the determinant of A.

6. If the elements of any row (column) of A are all zeros, then the determinant of A is zero.

7. If an n × n matrix A is multiplied by a scalar k, then the determinant of kA is k n det A, that

is
det kA = k n det A.

8. If A is an n × n matrix, with any two of its rows (columns) equal, then the determinant of A
is zero.

9. If A is an n × n matrix, in which one row (column) is proportional to another, then the

determinant of the matrix is zero.

72
6.16 Adjoint

Definition 6.16.1. Let A = [aij ] be an n × n matrix and let Aij denote the co-factors of aij . The
adjoint of A, denoted by adj A is the transpose of the matrix of co-factors of A, that is

adj A = [Aij ]t .
 
2 3 −4
Example 6.16.1. Let A = 0 −4 2 . The co-factors of the nine elements of A are as follows,
1 −1 5
     
−4 2 0 2  0 −4
A11 = +   = −18, A12 = − 
1 5 = 2, A13 = + 1 −1 = 4
  
−1 5
     
 3 −4 2 −4 2 3 
A21 = −   = −11, A22 = + 
1 5  = 14, A23 = − 1 −1 = 5
  
−1 5 
     
 3 −4 2 −4 2 3 
 = −10, A32 = − 
A31 = +  0 2  = −4, A33 = + 0 −4 = −8.
  
−4 2 
   
A11 A12 A13 −18 2 4
[Aij ] = A21 A22 A23  = −11 14 5  .
A31 A32 A33 −10 −4 −8
The transpose of the above matrix of co-factors yields the adjoint of A, that is
 
−18 −11 −10
adj A =  2 14 −4  .
4 5 −8

Theorem 6.16.1. Let A be any square matrix.Then

A(adj A) = (adj A)A = |A|I,

where I is the identity matrix. Thus, if |A| =

6 0,
1
A−1 = adj A.
|A|

Example 6.16.2. Let A be the matrix above. We have

det A = −40 + 6 + 0 − 16 + 4 + 0 = −46.

Thus A does have an inverse and from

 
−18 −11 −10
1 1
A−1 = adj A = −  2 14 −4  .
|A| 46
4 5 −8

73
6.17 Properties of Inverses
1. If an n × n matrix A is invertible, then det A 6= 0.
Definition 6.17.1. A matrix which has an inverse is said to be invertible. A matrix whose
determinant is non-zero is said to be non-singular and if a matrix has determinant equal to
zero it is called a singular matrix.

2. If an n × n matrix A is invertible, then

(A−1 )−1 = A.

3. If an n × n matrix A is invertible, then At is also invertible, and

(At )−1 = (A−1 )t .

4. If A is an n × n invertible matrix, then

1
det A−1 = .
det A

6.18 Tutorial 6
   
2 1 1 0
1. Let A = . Solve for B the equation AB = .
3 1 0 1
2. Let A, B, C be square matrices of order n. Prove that
(i) A + B = B + A, (ii) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C, (iii) (AB)C = A(BC).

3. Find the determinant of  

2 1 2 1 1

 1 0 0 1 1 

C= 0 1 1 0 0 

 1 0 0 1 2 
1 1 2 2 1
   
1 1 1 −1 3
4. Given that A = , and B = , find (AB)t and B t At and verify that
0 1 2 0 −4
(AB)t = B t At .
 
x 1
5. Let E(x) = . Show that
−1 0
(a) E(x)E(0)E(y) = −E(x + y).
(b) the inverse of E(x) is E(0)E(−x)E(0).
 
1 a a 2 
 
6. Show that 1 b b2  = (b − a)(c − a)(c − b).
1 c c2 

74
    
1 0 1 1 3 2
7. Find the inverse of A =  2 2 0  and C =  3 1 4 .
0 1 3 0 2 3
8. Solve for x:
 
 2−x 4 −2 
 
 4
 2 − x −2 =0

 −2 −2 4 − x 

9. Prove that if A is an invertible matrix, then At is also invertible and (At )−1 = (A−1 )t .
 1 1
1 7 7
10. Let A = 0 1 0 . Calculate A2 , A3 , A4 and find an expression for An .
0 0 1

75
Chapter 7

Application of Matrices

7.1 Elementary Row Operations

Let ri denote row i of matrix A. There are 3 elementary row operations, namely

1. ri ↔ rj meaning interchanging row i with row j.

2. ri → kri , k 6= 0 meaning multiply ri by a scalar k.

3. ri → kri + rj meaning multiply row i by k and add row j.

 
1 0 2
Example 7.1.1. Consider the matrix A = 4 1 3. Then
3 2 6
 
4 1 3
r1 ↔ r2 gives 1 0 2
3 2 6
 
1 0 2
r2 → 2r2 gives 8 2 6
3 2 6
 
5 2 10
r1 → 2r1 + r3 gives 4 1 3  .
3 2 6

76
7.2 Inverses Using Row Operations

We can use row operations to find the inverse of A by writing a matrix (A|In ), then use row
operations to get (In |A−1 ).
 
2 3
Example 7.2.1. Consider A = .
2 2

Solution: We write  
2 3 1 0
.
2 2 0 1
Then performing row operations we have
 
2 3 1 0
r2 → r2 − r1
0 −1 −1 1
 
2 0 −2 3
r1 → r1 + 3r2
0 −1 −1 1
0 −1 23
 
1 1
r1 → r1
2 0 −1 −1 1
0 −1 32
 
1
r2 → −r2 .
0 1 1 −1

−1 23
 
−1
Therefore A = . Checking can be done by verifying that A−1 A = I.
1 −1

−1 23
    
2 3 1 0
= = I.
1 −1 2 2 0 1

7.3 Linear Equations

An equation of the kind

a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n = b
is called a linear equation in the n variables x1 , x2 , · · · , xn and a1 , a2 , · · · , an and b are real
constants.

A solution of a linear equation a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b is a sequence of n numbers s1 , s2 , · · · , sn

such that the equation is satisfied when we substitute x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , · · · , xn = sn . The set of all
solutions of the equation is called its solution set.

A finite set of linear equations in the variables x1 , x2 , · · · , xn is called a system of linear equations
or a linear system.

77
A sequence of numbers s1 , s2 , · · · , sn is called a solution of the system if x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , · · · ,
xn = sn is a solution of every equation in the system. Not all systems of linear equations have
solutions. A system of equations that has no solutions is said to be inconsistent. If there is at
least one solution, it is called consistent.

Every system of linear equations has either no solutions, exactly one solution or infinitely
many solutions.

An arbitrary system of m linear equations in n unknowns will be written as

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .
. = ..
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm

where x1 , x2 , · · · , xn are the unknowns. We can write a rectangular array of numbers, as

 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n b2 
..  .
 
 .. .. ..
 . . ··· . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm

This is called the augmented matrix for the system.

Example 7.3.1. The augmented matrix for the system of equations

x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 9
2x1 + 4x2 − 3x3 = 1
3x1 + 6x2 − 5x3 = 0

is  
1 1 2 9
2 4 −3 1 .
3 6 −5 0
Example 7.3.2. Find the solution set of

2x1 − x2 + x3 = 4
−3x1 + 2x2 − 4x3 = 1
x1 − 5x3 = 0

Solution: The augmented matrix for the linear system is

 
2 −1 1 4
−3 2 −4 1 .
1 0 −5 0

78
Doing row operations, we have
 
1 0 −5 0
r3 ↔ r1 −3 2 −4 1 .
2 −1 1 4
 
1 0 −5 0
r2 → r2 + 3r1 , r3 → r3 − 2r1 0 2 −19 1 .
0 −1 11 4
 
1 0 −5 0
r2 ↔ r3 0 −1 11 4 .
0 2 −19 1
 
1 0 −5 0
r2 ↔ (−1)r2 0 1 −11 −4 .
0 2 −19 1
 
1 0 −5 0
r3 → r3 − 2r2  0 1 −11 −4 .
0 0 3 9

Corresponding system of linear equations which is derived from the augmented matrix is

x1 − 5x3 = 0
x2 − 11x3 = −4
3x3 = 9.

Now using the method of back substitution, we find the values of the unknown as follows

x3 = 3
x2 = −4 + 33 = 29
x1 = 0 + 15 = 15.

The solution set is

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (15, 29, 3).

7.3.1 Applications of Linear Equations

Linear equations arise in many applications, for example, quadratic interpolation, temperature
distribution, global positioning system (gps), e.t.c.

7.4 Row Echelon Form

To be in this form, a matrix must have the following properties

79
 1. If a row does not consist entirely of zeros, then the first non-zero number in the row is a 1
(leading 1).

2. If there are any rows that consists entirely of zeros, then they are grouped together at the
bottom of the matrix.

3. In any two successive rows that do not consist entirely of zeros, the leading 1 in the lower row
occur further to the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.

4. Each column that contain a leading 1 has zeros elsewhere.

A matrix having properties 1, 2 and 3 is said in row-echelon form.

A matrix in reduced row-echelon form must have zeros above and below each leading 1.

Example 7.4.1. These are in row echelon form

 
1 −3 1 0 −8  
0 1 −9 6 0  1 1 −3 4
  and 0 0 1 9 .
0 0 0 1 7
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1

Example 7.4.2. These are in reduced row-echelon form

   
  0 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 −4 0 0 0
0 1 2 0 ,  0
,
0
 0 0 0
.
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The procedure for reducing a matrix to a reduced row-echelon form is called Gauss-Jordan Elim-
ination and the procedure which produces a row-echelon form is called the Gauss Elimination.
The Gauss Elimination method requires fewer elementary row operations than the Gauss-Jordan
method.

Example 7.4.3. Solve the following system of linear equations

−3x2 + 4x3 = −2
x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 = 9
x1 + x2 − 6x3 = −7.

Solution: The augmented matrix is

 
0 −3 4 −2
1 5 2 9 .
1 1 −6 −7

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Doing row operations, yields
 
1 5 2 9
r1 ↔ r2 , r2 ↔ r3 , r2 → r2 − r1 0 −4 −8 −16 .
0 −3 4 −2
 
1 5 2 9
1
r2 → − r2 , r3 → r3 + 3r2 0 1 2 4  .
4
0 0 10 10
 
1 5 2 9
1
r3 → r3 0 1 2 4 ,
10
0 0 1 1
which is now in echelon form and is equivalent to
x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 = 9
x2 + 2x3 = 4
x3 = 1.
This means x3 = 1, x2 = 4 − 2x3 = 2 and finally x1 = 9 − 5x2 − 2x3 = −3. Hence
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (−3, 2, 1).
Alternatively we could continue with the elementary row operations as follows
 
1 0 −8 −11
r1 → r1 − 5r2 , r2 → r2 − 2r3 , 0 1 0 2 .
0 0 1 1
 
1 0 0 −3
r1 → r1 + 8r3 0 1 0 2  ,
0 0 1 1
which is now in reduced row-echelon form and is equivalent to
x1 = −3
x2 = 2
x3 = 1.
Therefore
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (−3, 2, 1).

The types of solutions one can get when solving system of linear equations, we shall look at several
augmented matrices that have already been reduced to echelon form.

Case 1

 
1 2 0 3
0 1 1 4 
0 0 1 −1

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is equivalent to

x1 + 2x2 = 3
x2 + x3 = 4
x3 = −1,

which implies that x1 = −7, x2 = 5 and x3 = −1.

Case 2

 
1 0 −2 1
0 1 −1 3
0 0 0 0
which is equivalent to

x1 − 2x3 = 1
x2 − x3 = 3

which implies that

x2 = x3 + 3
x1 = 2x3 + 1
x3 = x3 .

In this case all the solutions are expressed in terms of x3 . Any arbitrary value can be assigned to x3
and the resulting values of x1 , x2 and x3 will satisfy all the equations in the system. The solution
set therefore is infinite and written as follows

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (2t + 1, t + 3, t).

Case 3

 
1 −2 4 0
0 1 3 −2 .
0 0 0 −4
The equation represented by the last row is 0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 = −4. Clearly, we can never find
suitable values for x1 , x2 and x3 which satisfy this equation. Therefore the solution does not exist.

The reduced row-echelon form of a matrix is unique and a row-echelon form is not unique, by
changing the sequence of elementary row operations it is possible to arrive at different row-echelon
forms.

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Example 7.4.4. Find the value of α for which the following system of equations is (a) consistent
(b) inconsistent.
−3x1 + x2 = −2
x1 + 2x2 = 3
2x1 + 3x2 = α.

Solution: The augmented matrix is

 
−3 1 −2
 1 2 3 .
2 3 α
Doing elementary row operations, we have
 
1 2 3
r1 ↔ r2 , −3 1 −2 .
2 3 α
 
1 2 3
r2 → r2 + 3r1 , r3 → r3 − 2r1 0 7 7 .
0 −1 α − 6
 
1 2 3
1
r2 → r2 0 1 1 .
7
0 −1 α − 6
 
1 2 3
r3 → r3 + r2 0 1 1 
0 0 α−5
which is now in echelon form. The last row is equivalent to 0x1 + 0x2 = α − 5.

(a) The system can be consistent only if α − 5 = 0, that is, when α = 5.

(b) The system is inconsistent if α − 5 6= 0, that is, when α 6= 5.

7.5 Homogeneous System of Linear Equations

Definition 7.5.1. A homogeneous system of linear equations is a system in which all the constant
terms are zero.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0
.. .. . .
. . · · · .. = ..
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = 0.

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Any homogeneous system of equations will always have a solution no matter what the coefficient
matrix is like, and so can never be inconsistent.

The obvious solution is x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = 0. This solution is known as the trivial solution.

7.5.1 Solution of Homogeneous Systems

Example 7.5.1. Find the solution set of the following homogeneous system of linear equations

x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0
2x1 + x2 − 3x3 = 0
−3x2 + x3 = 0.

Solution: The augmented matrix is

 
1 −2 1 0
2 1 −3 0 .
0 −3 1 0

doing the elementary row operations, we have

 
1 −2 1 0
r2 → r2 − 2r1 0 5 −5 0 .
0 −3 1 0
 
1 −2 1 0
1
r2 → r2 0 1 −1 0 .
5
0 −3 1 0
 
1 −2 1 0
r3 → r3 + 3r2 0 1 −1 0
0 0 1 0

which is equivalent to

x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 0
x2 − x − x3 = 0
x3 = 0.

Therefore (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (0, 0, 0) has only one solution, the trivial solution.

In general if (i) n = m the system has only the zero solution. (ii) if m < n, the system has a non
zero solution.
Theorem 7.5.1. A homogeneous system of linear equations with more unknowns than equations
has a non-zero solution.

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7.6 Tutorial 7
1. Solve the following system using Gaussian elimination method
x + y + z = 6
2x − y + z = 3
(a)
x + z = 4
2x + y + z = 7.
2. Solve the following systems using Gauss Jordan elimination method
x + y + z = 5
(a) 2x + 3y + 5z = 8
4x + 5z = 2.
 
3 1 1
3. Using Gauss Jordan elimination, find the inverse of D =  1 5 1 .
1 1 3
4. Consider the system of equations

x + y + 2z = a
x + z = b
2x + y + 3z = c.

Show that in order for this system to be consistent, a, b, and c must satisfy c = a + b.

5. In the following linear system, determine all the values of a for which the resulting linear
system has (a) no solution (b) a unique solution and (c) infinitely many solutions.

x + 3y − 2z = 1
x + 7y − 4z = 7
2x + 4y + (a2 − 28)z = a + 4.

6. For what values of c does the following system of linear equations have
(i) no solution, (ii) a unique solution, (iii) infinitely many solutions ?

x + 2y − 3z = 4
3x − y + 5z = 2
2
4x + y + (c − 14)z = c + 2.

Show that in the case of infinitely many solutions, the solution may be written as ( 78 − α, 10
7
+
2α, α) for any real α.
 
2 0 4 2
7. Find the rank of the matrix A = 0 4 8 4 .
0 2 2 1

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