GEOL40450 Assignment 3 - Nicholas Danesi - 14200572

How geoscience can aid the decarbonisation of global energy systems

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 2
2. Methods to aid decarbonisation ............................................................................................ 2
2.1 Energy Storage .............................................................................................................. 2
2.1.1 Background ............................................................................................................ 2
2.1.2 Pumped hydro storage ........................................................................................... 3
2.1.3 Compressed air energy storage............................................................................... 3
2.1.4 Underground Thermal Energy Storage .................................................................... 4
2.2 Geothermal Energy ........................................................................................................ 5
2.3 Carbon capture and sequestration ................................................................................. 6
2.4 Summary of geoscientific decarbonisation methods....................................................... 7
3. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 9
4. Terminology......................................................................................................................... 10
5. Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 11

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 GEOL40450 Assignment 3 - Nicholas Danesi - 14200572

1. Introduction
It is clear that anthropogenic generated climate change is a serious issue for the planet. The
industrialisation and urbanisation of humanity that has been fuelled by fossil fuel energy sources such
as coal and oil has given us an unparalleled advancement in wealth and technology (IPCC, 2011).
However, this has resulted in significant environmental issues, with one of the most paramount being
the increasingly pressured climate through the significant emission of greenhouse gases caused by
fossil fuels (IPCC, 2011). Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions generated from fossil fuel combustion have
had the biggest impact on the climate (EPA, 2020). It accounts for three-quarters of the increase in
the global temperature (EPA, 2020).

To reduce the anthropogenic stress on the climate caused by fossil fuels, world leaders and scientists
have aimed to decarbonise, i.e. significantly reduce the amount of CO2 being emitted to the
atmosphere (IPCC, 2011). There are many ways to decarbonise our planet, one of the most effective
ways is through overhauling the global energy system by utilising renewable, low CO2 emitting fuels,
creating efficient energy storage solutions, and capturing CO2 emissions (Rissman, et al., 2020).

Geoscience has been a central element in the carbonisation of the environment through its central
role in facilitating the extraction and utilisation of fossil fuels (Stephenson, 2018). However, several
elements of geoscience can be leveraged to aid in the decarbonisation of energy systems by improving
our energy generation and storage, as well as sequestering carbon emissions from combusted fossil
fuels (Stephenson, 2018). The application of geoscience is integral for the goal to decarbonise the
energy sector and reach net-zero emissions (Stephenson, 2018) (Rissman, et al., 2020).

2. Methods to aid decarbonisation

2.1 Energy Storage
2.1.1 Background
A key issue with some renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar is that their energy is
generated intermittently due to variable wind speeds and sunlight (Bruckner, et al., 2014). The energy
that they supply does not always meet consumer demand. Therefore, the development and adoption
of efficient and scalable energy storage methods is essential in overcoming the supply-demand energy
discrepancy in solar and wind power (Bruckner, et al., 2014). Because large quantities of electricity
cannot be stored, traditionally, fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas have been used to store energy
due to their high-energy densities, transportability, and low storage costs (Letcher, 2016).

The development and adoption of low emission energy storage that can be utilised to store excess
supplied energy that can be converted to electricity for supply deficiencies will further reduce our
reliance on fossil fuels (Letcher, 2016). There are several geological energy storage alternatives which
will be important in decarbonising energy systems including, underground thermal energy storage,
pumped hydro storage, and compressed air storage (Stephenson, 2018) (Letcher, 2016).Pumped
hydro storage

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2.1.2 Pumped hydro storage

Pumped hydro storage (PHS) is the most extensive energy storage method in the world, holding 97%
of the global storage market (Blakers, et al., 2020). It is used to provide electricity to the grid during
heightened consumer demand periods. It is a relatively simple technology that has been used to store
energy since the 1890s (IRENA, 2017).

It operates by using excess energy to pump water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir and in
periods of high demand, it allows the water to flow back into the lower reservoir via a turbine which
generates electricity (Komarnicki, et al., 2017). PHS effectively is storing energy in the form of
gravitational potential energy, meaning that the amount of energy stored is proportional to the height
differential between the reservoirs and the volume of water (Komarnicki, et al., 2017). Figure 2 shows
a typical PHS configuration.

Figure 1 - A typical pumped hydro storage system (Alternative Energy Tutorials, 2017)

PHS requires enormous footprints to store energy; a PHS technique that is being developed is the
utilisation of sub-surface reservoirs for areas with limited space; however, there is currently no
commercial-scale subsurface PHS plants (IRENA, 2017).

2.1.3 Compressed air energy storage

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is an energy storage method that uses excess energy to
compress, and deposit air in underground caverns (Layton, 2012). In periods of high energy demand,
the compressed air is then re-expanded to drive a turbine and generate electricity (Layton, 2012). The
amount of electricity that is generated is adjusted by controlling the amount and rate of air re-
expansion (Layton, 2012). Figure 3 shows a simplified CAES system.

Figure 2 - Simplified compressed air energy storage system (PG&E, 2020)

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Currently, CAES has minimal adoption with only two commercial plants in operation (IRENA, 2017).
CAES ideally uses salt caverns as storage because they have impermeable walls that prevent both
pressure losses and chemical reactions that occur between oxygen and other minerals (Stephenson,
2018). As heat is generated through air compression, it is ideal for CAES and UTES to be utilised in
tandem to minimise energy losses through waste heat (Stephenson, 2018).

2.1.4 Underground Thermal Energy Storage

Underground thermal energy storage (UTES) is a simple technology which operates by storing energy
underground by injecting heated or cooled substances (typically water) into boreholes, aquifers,
caverns, or pits (Akhmetov, et al., 2016). These subsurface areas act as repositories for heated or
cooled water to be stored until it is required. Figure 1 shows an example of an aquifer UTES system.

Figure 3 - Basic underground thermal energy storage configuration using an aquifer (IF Technology, 2020)

UTES is useful in storing liquids with temperatures from 0°C up to 40 – 50°C, which is suitable for
heating and cooling applications in HVAC systems (Akhmetov, et al., 2016). The use of higher
temperatures results in significant energy losses due to the large temperature differences between
the heated liquid and the ambient ground temperature (Akhmetov, et al., 2016). The primary source
of stored energy is waste heat generation from heat pumps and to a lesser degree, excess thermal
solar heat and industrial process waste heat (Johnson, et al., 2019).

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2.2 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is essentially the utilisation of heat generated by the earth to produce electricity
and provide heating to buildings (Dickson & Fanelli, 2003). It is a very low CO2 emitting energy source
that is virtually inexhaustible with a current estimated usage of 41.4 gigawatts (13.4 GW of electricity
and 28 GW of heat); though present technology could globally harness up to 70 GW of geothermal
energy (Stephenson, 2018). Geothermal energy resources are readily available in at least 90 countries
and are a valuable, non-intermittent source of energy that can help decarbonise energy systems
(Stephenson, 2018).

Geothermal energy extracts energy sourced from subsurface waters that are heated by the earth’s
core-mantle boundary, which can reach temperatures above 3500°C (Fridleifsson, 2001). The water
cools significantly as it rises to the surface; however, it still has significant heat that can be used for
heating or converted to electricity using turbines in a geothermal power station (Fridleifsson, 2001).
Figure 4 shows a simplified geothermal power plant configuration.

Figure 4 - Simplified configuration of a geothermal power plant (Solar Schools, 2020)

Geothermal energy technology is being further developed through enhanced geothermal systems
(EGS) (Soltani, et al., 2019). EGS is distinct from conventional geothermal energy extraction as it
extracts additional heat by fracturing heated rocks or fluids using high-pressure water injection
(Soltani, et al., 2019). The use of EGS further leverages geothermal systems to deliver more than
energy; EGS could current geothermal energy use to 140 GW (Stephenson, 2018). However, the use
of EGS requires external energy expenditure and infrastructure (Soltani, et al., 2019).

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2.3 Carbon capture and sequestration

As aforementioned, fossil fuels are highly energy-dense, transportable, and easily storable which
makes them an incredibly valuable energy asset that can effectively provide power to grids anywhere
on the planet (IRENA, 2017). For these reasons, it is unlikely that fossil fuels will be completely phased
out anytime soon. Therefore, decarbonisation efforts should also be focused on decreasing the carbon
emissions generated by burning these fuels (Stephenson, 2018) (Rissman, et al., 2020)

Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is a process which captures CO2 at emission point sources,
such as flue-gas stacks, steel mills and cement plants (Holloway, 2007). The stored CO2 can then be
either utilised in industry or stored in underground geological formations to ensure it does not enter
the atmosphere (Holloway, 2007). When CCS is implemented in modern power plants, it has been
shown to reduce CO2 emissions by 80 – 90% (IPCC, 2011). It is also possible to achieve net negative
carbon emissions by combining the use of bioenergy with CCS (Energy Technologies Institute, 2012).
There is abundant space for CCS to be used on a large scale, the United Kingdom Storage Appraisal
Project estimated that up to 78 gigatonnes of CO2 could be stored in Britain, essentially there is enough
room for thousands of years of CO2 emissions from Britain's power stations (Stephenson, 2018).

The CO2 in CCS is captured at emission points using a variety of technologies such as absorption,
adsorption, and gas separation, all of which isolate CO2 allowing it to be transported to injection sites
(Rissman, et al., 2020). The simplest solution to store the CO2 is to inject it into depleted oil and gas
reservoirs, although it can also be injected into bedrock or saline aquifers through deep boreholes
(Rissman, et al., 2020). Typically, saline aquifers or sedimentary bedrock is used for CCS due to its
favourable permeability and porosity (Stephenson, 2018). The extreme pressures deep underground
(approx. 1 km) significantly compresses the CO2 into a supercritical fluid allowing large volumes to be
stored within the bedrock (Stephenson, 2018). The physical and chemical processes of subsurface
storage can effectively store CO2 for millions of years (Rissman, et al., 2020). Figure 5 shows the CCS
process.

Figure 5 - Simplified carbon capture and storage system (Mann & Kump, 2015)

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2.4 Summary of geoscientific decarbonisation methods

Geoscience can clearly aid in the decarbonisation of energy systems through providing effective
energy storage solutions, geothermal energy, and a method of storing carbon emissions which
prevents them from entering the atmosphere. Table 1 details some of the advantages and
disadvantages of geoscientific decarbonisation methods.
Table 1 - Advantages and disadvantages of geoscientific decarbonisation methods

Advantages and disadvantages of geoscientific decarbonisation methods

Advantages Disadvantages
Underground Thermal Energy Storage 1,2
• Effective at providing energy to HVAC systems • Ineffective at higher temperatures (>50oC) 1
and domestic hot water systems.1 • Several storage technics still in experimental
• Opportunity to recycle waste heat generated stages. 2
that would otherwise be lost. 1 • Seasonal storage requires large reservoirs. 2
• Water for storage is obtained at a low cost. 1 • Low energy-dense storage. 1
• Systems can be built to be non-reliant on • Heat losses over time deplete stored energy. 1
geological conditions. 2 • Significant construction costs for new
systems. 2
Pumped Hydro Storage 3,4
• Mature technology. 3 • Low potential for technology developments. 3
• Effective at providing large, long-lasting • Large footprints. 3
storage of energy. 3 • Low energy-dense storage. 4
4
• Low maintenance requirements. • Significant capital investment required for
• Low-risk technology 3 new project infrastructure. 3
• No energy losses to the environment. 3 • Large frictional energy losses. 4
Compressed Air Energy Storage5,6
• High level of energy output and control. 5 • Significant capital investment required to
• Can be used in conjunction with UTES to develop new caverns. 6
6
minimise energy losses. • Site selection is limited due to geological
• Provides significant energy storage at requirements. 6
5,6
relatively low costs. • Air compression requires external cooling if
• Fast start-up times. 5 UTES is not utilised. 5,6
• Negligible energy losses to the environment. 5
• Low toxicity. 5
Geothermal Energy6,7,8,9
7
• Renewable energy source. • Extraction of geothermal energy can release
• Low carbon emissions. 7 greenhouse gases (significantly lower rates
7
• Highly efficient electricity conversion systems. than fossil fuels) as well as hydrogen sulphide
• Limited maintenance requirements. 8 and ammonia. 8,9
• Long life span of geothermal pumps. 8 • Specific locations might cooldown over time. 6
• Reliable energy source – limited fluctuations. • Significant initial capital investment costs. 7,8
9

• Development of enhanced geothermal • Restricted to specific locations. 7

systems offers significant improvements. 6,8
Carbon capture and sequestration (subsurface) 6,10,11,12,13
• Rates up to 90% capture efficiency. 13
• CO2 as a value product for concrete
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enrichment and fuel generation.
11,12,13
• Continually advancing technologies.
• Risk of inducing seismic activity. 6,8
• Majority of geothermal energy unavailable for
use. 7
• Requires external funding or policy to
facilitate usage. 6,13
• Extremely high capital investment. 12,13

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• Exceptionally efficient in subsurface long- • CO2 injection into reservoirs can induce
6,10,13
term CO2 storage. seismic activity. 6,11
• Technology can easily be retrofitted into • Limited testing for deep ocean storage. 13
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existing power plants. • Potential for gradual or abrupt leakage from
• Provides an opportunity to continue using geological storage. 6,11,12,13
12,13
fossil fuels while limiting CO2 emissions. • Early estimates indicate €60 and €90 per
• Used with bioenergy to provides net negative tonne of carbon dioxide captured and stored. 6
carbon emissions. 10
(Akhmetov, et al., 2016)1 (Cabeza, 2015)2 (IRENA, 2017)3 (Komarnicki, et al., 2017)4 (Layton, 2012)5
(Stephenson, 2018)6 (Dickson & Fanelli, 2003)7 (Soltani, et al., 2019)8 (Fridleifsson, 2001)9 (Energy
Technologies Institute, 2012)10 (Holloway, 2007)11 (Letcher, 2016)12 (Rissman, et al., 2020)13

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3. Conclusion
Geoscience has been a critical factor in climate change and the carbonisation of our atmosphere;
however, it can be an essential factor in the decarbonisation of global energy systems. The most
effective decarbonisation solution geoscience provides the opportunity to capture carbon emissions
and efficiently sequestrate them into geological structures. Geoscientific energy storage methods and
geothermal energy usage are also crucial components. However, it is unclear whether these solutions
will be adopted at scale for decarbonisation.

Geoscience also will play a significant role in decarbonisation by providing key elements that are
essential for constructing wind turbines, solar panels, and batteries, while also providing geological
repositories that enable the safe disposal of nuclear waste. Finally, it must be recognised that though
decarbonisation technologies exist, they require not only further research and scale to be useful
measures but also the careful implementation of strategic policy to facilitate their use.

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4. Terminology
Aquifer - a subsurface layer of water-bearing permeable rock
Bedrock – consolidated rock that is layered and tightly bound
Bioenergy – energy produced from biomass (organic matter derived from plants or animals)
CAES – Compressed air energy storage
CCS – Carbon capture and sequestration
CO2 – carbon dioxide
Core-mantle boundary -
Decarbonisation – reducing/eliminating carbon dioxide emissions
EGS – enhanced geothermal systems
GW – gigawatt (1 x 109- watts)
Geoscience – all fields of natural science related to planet Earth.
HVAC - Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Impermeable – preventing fluid from passing through
Permeability – how easily a liquid or gas passes through an object
PHS – Pumped hydro storage
Porosity – the fractional void or “empty space” within a material
Sedimentary rock – rock formed by the accumulation or deposition of mineral or organic matter
Seismic – vibrations of the earth and its crust
Supercritical fluid - where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist, but below the pressure
required for solidification
UTES – Underground thermal energy storage
Waste heat – heat produced by a machine as a by-product of its work

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5. Bibliography
Akhmetov, B. et al., 2016. Thermal energy storage systems – review. Bulgarian Chemical
Communications, Issue 48, pp. 31-40.

Blakers, A., Stocks, M. & Lu, B., 2020. Australian electricity options: pumped hydro energy storage,
Canberra: Australian National University.

Bruckner, T., Bashmakov, I. & Mulugetta, Y., 2014. Energy Systems. In: Climate Change 2014:
Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cabeza, L., 2015. Advances in Thermal Energy Storage Systems:Methods and Applications.
s.l.:Woodhead Publishing Series.

Chadwick, A., 2008. Best practice for the storage of CO2 in saline aquifers - observations and
guidelines from the SACS and CO2 STORE projects. British Geological Survey, Volume 14, p. 267.

Dickson, M. & Fanelli, M., 2003. Geothermal Energy: Utilisation and Technology. Paris: UNESCO.

Energy Technologies Institute, 2012. The Evidence for deploying bioenergy with CCS (BECCS) in the
UK. [Online]
Available at: http://www.eti.co.uk/insights/the-evidence-for-deploying-bioenergy-with-ccs-beccs-in-
the-uk
[Accessed 20 11 2020].

EPA, 2020. Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data. [Online]

Available at: https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data
[Accessed 24 11 2020].

Fridleifsson, I., 2001. Geothermal energy for the benefit of the people. Renewable Sustainability
Energy Review, Issue 5, pp. 299-312.

Holloway, S., 2007. Carbon dioxide capture and geological storage. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London A, Issue 365, pp. 1095-1107.

IPCC, 2011. Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitagation, Geneva: Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change.

IRENA, 2017. Electricity Storage and Renewables: Costs and Markets to 2030, Abu Dhabi:
International Renewable Energy Agency.

Johnson, S. et al., 2019. Chapter Five - Selecting Favorable Energy Storage Technologies for Nuclear
Power. In: H. Bindra & S. Revankar, eds. Storage and Hybridization of Nuclear Energy. s.l.:Academic
Press, pp. 119-175.

Komarnicki, P., Lombardi, P. & Styczynski, Z., 2017. Electric Energy Storage Systems: Flexibility
Options for Smart Grids, Berlin: Springer Nature.

Layton, L., 2012. Compressed Air Energy Storage, Fairfax: PDHonline.

Letcher, T., 2016. Storing Energy with Special Reference to Renewable Energy Sources. 1st ed.
s.l.:Elsevier.

Rissman, J., Bataille, C. & Masanet, E., 2020. Technologies and policies to decarbonize global
industry: Review and assessment of mitigation drivers through 2070. Applied Energy, Volume 266.

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Soltani, M. et al., 2019. A comprehensive review of geothermal energy evolution and development.
International Journal of Green Energy, Issue 16, pp. 971-1009.

Stephenson, M., 2018. Chapter 5 - Geology and the Reduction of Emissions. In: M. Stephenson, ed.
Energy and Climate Change. s.l.:Elsevier, pp. 91-121.

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