Most Carbohydrates are Polymers monomer e.g.

monosaccharide,
amino acid
1) Most carbohydrates (as well as proteins and nucleic acids) are polymers.
2) Polymers are large, complex molecules composed of long chains of '= 4 h r
monomers joined together.
polymer e.g. carbohydrate, protein
3) Monomers are small, basic molecular units.
4) Examples of monomers include monosaccharides, amino acids and nucleotides.

Carbohydrates are Made from Monosaccharides

1) All carbohydrates contain the elements C, H and O.
2) The monomers that they're made from are monosaccharides, e.g. glucose, fructose and galactose.

1) Glucose is a hexose sugar — a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms

in each molecule.
2) There are two types of glucose, alpha (a) and beta (|3)
—they're isomers (molecules with the same molecular formula as each
other, but with the atoms connected in a different way).
3) You need to know the structures of both types of glucose for your exam
— it's pretty easy because there's only one difference between the two:

a-glucose molecule P-glucose molecule

C H ,O H C H 2O H
i 2

\ /h \ r \
H
\ A ~ \ r
OH

Hn/ \? H v k
HO c ------c \ OH /
I ho/ Vh
i, i \ / I I
H OH V H OH

^ T h e two types of glucose

have these groups reversed

Condensation Reactions Join Monosaccharides Together

1) A condensation reaction is when two molecules join together with the formation of a new chemical bond,
and a water molecule is released when the bond is formed.
2) Monosaccharides are joined together by condensation reactions.
3) A glycosidic bond forms between the two monosaccharides as a molecule of water is released.
4) A disaccharide is formed when two monosaccharides join together.

Example glycosidic bond

Two a-glucose H O. /H H H O /H
molecules are +H,0
HO o;h HO OH HO l Q'1 OH
joined together by a-glucose a-glucose maltose
a glycosidic bond
to form maltose. HO is removed 1 M l M M I I I I I n I I I I I

^ If you're asked to show a t

Z condensation reaction, don't ~
5) Sucrose is a disaccharide formed from a condensation reaction between a
-- forget to put the water I
glucose molecule and a fructose molecule.
z molecule in as a product. r
6) Lactose is another disaccharide formed from a glucose molecule and a 11111 1 n 1 n 1/ 1 ii 1
galactose molecule.
 Carbohydrates
Hydrolysis Reactions Break Polymers Apart
1) Polymers can be broken down into monomers by hydrolysis reactions.
2) A hydrolysis reaction breaks the chemical bond between monomers using a water
molecule. It's basically the opposite of a condensation reaction.
3) For example, carbohydrates can be broken down into their constituent
monosaccharides by hydrolysis reactions.

Polymer

A Hydrolysis — the bond is broken by the

addition of a water molecule

Even hydrolysis couldn't

break this bond.

-O H HO- -O H

Use the Benedict’s Test for Sugars

Sugar is a general term for monosaccharides and disaccharides. All sugars can be classified as reducing or
non-reducing. The Benedict's test tests for sugars — it differs depending on the type of sugar you are testing for.

1) Reducing sugars include all monosaccharides (e.g. glucose)

and some disaccharides (e.g. maltose and lactose).
2) ) You add Benedict's reagent (which is blue) to a sample
and heat it in a water bath that's been brought to the boil.
3) If the test's positive it will form a coloured precipitate
(solid particles suspended in the solution). r Alwar s us« an excess of r
Z Benedict's solution — ;
Z thls mak« sure that all ~
The colour of the precipitate changes from:
Z the sugar reacts. z
111" I I I I I I MM| | | V\N
blue-£> green>=>-yellowH>orange=4> brick red

4) The higher the concentration of reducing sugar, the further the

colour change goes — you can use this to compare the amount
of reducing sugar in different solutions. A more accurate way
of doing this is to filter the solution and weigh the precipitate.

Cd/£1 1) If the result of the reducing sugars test is negative, there could still be a
< non-reducing sugar present. To test for non-reducing sugars, like sucrose,
first you have to break them down into monosaccharides.
U

D
1X1
U
2) You do this by getting a new sample of the test solution, adding dilute
Z hydrochloric acid and carefully heating it in a water bath that's been
u
D
brought to the boil. You then neutralise it with sodium hydrogencarbonate.
LU
O Then just carry out the Benedict's test as you would for a reducing sugar.
I 3) If the test's positive it will form a coloured precipitate (as for the reducing
z
O
sugars test). If the test's negative the solution will stay blue, which means it
doesn't contain any sugar (either reducing or non-reducing).
4

Carbohydrates
So, you've already looked at monosaccharides and disaccharides... now it's time to give polysaccharides some love.

Polysaccharides are Loads of Sugars Joined Together

A polysaccharide is formed when more than two monosaccharides are joined together by condensation reactions.

a-glucose a-glucose a-glucose a-glucose a-glucose

You need to know about the relationship between the structure and function of three polysaccharides
— starch, glycogen and cellulose.

Starch is the Main Energy Storage Material in Plants

1) Cells get energy from glucose. Plants store excess glucose as starch (when a plant needs
more glucose for energy, it breaks down starch to release the glucose).
2) Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides of alpha-glucose — amylose and amylopectin:
• Amylose — a long, unbranched chain of a-glucose. The angles of the glycosidic
bonds give it a coiled structure, almost like a cylinder. This makes it compact, one alpha-glucose
molecule
so it's really good for storage because you can fit more in to a small space.
• Amylopectin — a long, branched chain of a-glucose. Its side branches allow
the enzymes that break down the molecule to get at the glycosidic bonds easily.
This means that the glucose can be released quickly. Amylopectin

3) Starch is insoluble in water and doesn't affect water potential (see page 40), so it
doesn't cause water to enter cells by osmosis, which would make them swell.
This makes it good for storage.

Use the Iodine Test for Starch

If you do any experiment on the digestion of starch and want to find out if any is left, you'll need the iodine test.
just add iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution
to the test sample. If there is starch present, the sample
changes from browny-orange to a dark, blue-black colour.

Glycogen is the Main Energy Storage Material in Animals

1) Animal cells get energy from glucose too.

Glycogen
But animals store excess glucose as glycogen
— another polysaccharide of alpha-glucose.
2) Its structure is very similar to amylopectin,
except that it has loads more side branches
coming off it. Loads of branches means that
stored glucose can be released quickly, which
is important for energy release in animals.
After throwing and fetching
3) It's also a very compact molecule, the ball no less than 312
so it's good for storage. times, Chappy and Stuart
were finally out of glycogen.
 Carbohydrates
Cellulose is the Major Component of Cell Walls in Plants

one cellulose molecule

1} Cellulose is made of long, unbranched chains of beta glucose.
2) When beta-glucose molecules bond, they form straight
cellulose chains.
3) The cellulose chains are linked together by hydrogen bonds to form
strong fibres called microfibrils. The strong fibres mean cellulose
weak hydrogen one beta-glucose
provides structural support for cells (e.g. in plant cell walls).
bonds molecule