Chapter 6: Skeletal System
Anatomy and Physiology
Skeletal System
The skeletal system consists of bones as
well as their associated connective
tissues, including cartilage, tendons,
and ligaments.
• Skeleton is usually though as
the framework of the body,
but the skeletal system has
many other functions
Skeletal System Functions
❖ Body support
• Rigid, strong bone is well suited
for bearing weight and is major
supporting tissue of the body
• Cartilage provides firm yet
flexible support within certain
structure, such as nose,
external ear, thoracic cage,
and trachea
• Ligaments, strong bands of
fibrous connective tissue, hold
bones together
❖ Organ protection
• Bone is hard and protects the
organs it surrounds
❖ Body movements
• Contraction of the skeletal
muscles moves the bones,
producing body movements.
• Joints, which are formed
where two or more bones
come together, allow
movement between bones
• Ligaments allow some
movements between bones
but prevent excessive
movements
❖ Mineral storage
• Some minerals are stored in
bone, if blood levels of these
minerals decrease, the
minerals are released from
bone into the blood
• The principal minerals stored
are calcium and phosphorous,
two minerals essential for many
physiological processes
• If needed, the lipids are
released into the blood and
used by other tissues as a
source of energy
❖ Blood cell production
• Many bone contain cavities
filled with red bone marrow,
which produces blood cells
and platelets
. Components of Skeletal System
□ Bones
□ Cartilages
□ Tendons
□ Ligaments
Bones of Skeletal System
Extracellular Matrix
➢ Bone, cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments of the skeletal system are
all connective tissues.
▪ Their characteristics are largely
determined by the composition
of their extracellular matrix.
▪ The matrix always contains
collagen, ground substance,
and other organic molecules,
as well as water and minerals.
▪ Collagen is a tough, ropelike
protein.
▪ Proteoglycans are large
molecules consisting of many
polysaccharides attaching to
and encircling core proteins.
▪ The proteoglycans form large
aggregates and attract water.
▪ The extracellular matrix of
tendons and ligaments contains
large amounts of collagen
fibers, making these structures
very tough, like ropes or cables.
Cartilage Extracellular Matrix
➢ The extracellular matrix of cartilage
contains collagen and
proteoglycans.
▪ Collagen makes cartilage
tough, whereas the water-filled
proteoglycans make it smooth
and resilient.
▪ As a result, cartilage is relatively
rigid, but it springs back to its
original shape after being bent
or slightly compressed.
▪ It is an excellent shock
absorber.
Bones Extracellular Matrix
➢ The extracellular matrix of bone
contains collagen and minerals,
including calcium and phosphate.
▪ The ropelike collagen fibers
lend flexible strength to the
bone.
▪ The mineral component gives
bone compression (weight-
bearing) strength.
▪ Most of the mineral in bone is in
the form of calcium phosphate
crystals called hydroxyapatite.
Shape Classification of Bones
➢ There are four bone shape
classifications: long, short, flat, and
irregular.
▪ Long bones are longer than
they are wide; examples are
upper and lower limb bones.
▪ Short bones are approximately
as wide as they are long;
examples are the bones of the
wrist and ankle
▪ Flat bones have a relatively thin,
flattened shape; examples are
bones of the skull and sternum.
▪ Irregular bones include the
vertebrae and facial bones,
which have shapes that do not
fit readily into the other three
categories.
LONG BONE STRUCTURES
□ Diaphysis:
▪ Shaft
▪ Compact bone tissue
(on outside)
□ Epiphysis:
▪ Ends spongy bone
tissue
□ Articular cartilage:
▪ Covers epiphyses
▪ Reduces friction
□ Epiphyseal plate:
▪ site of growth
between
diaphysis and epiphysis
 □ Medullary cavity:
▪ center of diaphysis red or
yellow marrow
□ Periosteum:
▪ membrane around bone’s
outer surface
□ Endosteum:
▪ membrane that lines
medullary cavity
➢ Spongy bone
Bone Marrow
➢ Bones contain cavities, such as the
large medullary cavity in the
diaphysis, as well as smaller cavities
in the epiphyses of long bones and
in the interior of other bones.
▪ These spaces are filled with
soft tissue called marrow.
▪ Red marrow is the location of
blood forming cells.
▪ Yellow marrow is mostly fat.
▪ In newborns most bones have
blood making red bone
marrow.
▪ In adults red marrow in the
diaphysis is replaced by
yellow bone marrow.
▪ In adults most red bone
marrow is in the flat bones
and the long bones of the
femur and humerus.
Compact Bone Tissue
➢ Location:
o outer part of
diaphysis (long bones)
and thinner surfaces
of other bones
□ Osteon:
▪ structural unit of
compact bone
▪ includes lamella,
lacunae, canaliculus,
central canal, osteocytes
□ Lamella:
▪ rings of bone matrix
□ Lacunae:
▪ spaces between lamella
□ Canaliculus:
▪ tiny canals
▪ transport nutrients
and remove
waste
□ Central canal:
▪ center of osteon
▪ contains blood vessels
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue
□ It is located at the epiphyses of
long bones and center of
other bones.
□ It has trabeculae, which are
interconnecting rods, and
spaces that contain marrow.
□ It has no osteons.
Bone Cells
□ Osteoblasts:
▪ Responsible for the formation of
bone and the repair and
remodeling of bone.
□ Osteocytes:
▪ cells that maintain bone matrix
and form from osteoblast after
bone matrix has surrounded it.
□ Osteoclasts:
▪ contribute to bone repair and
remodeling by removing
existing bone, called bone
reabsorption
Bone Cells
➢ Bone formation that occurs within
connective tissue membranes is
called intramembranous
ossification.
o Ossification is the formation of
bone by osteoblasts.
o Bone formation that occurs
inside hyaline cartilage is
called endochondral
ossification.
o Both types of bone formation
result in compact and spongy
bone.
Intramembranous Ossification
➢ Intramembranous ossification
occurs when osteoblasts begin to
produce bone within connective
tissue.
o This occurs primarily in the
bones of the skull.
o Osteoblasts line up on the
surface of connective tissue
fibers and begin depositing
bone matrix to form trabeculae.
o The process begins in areas
called ossification centers and
the trabeculae radiate out from
the centers.
o Usually, two or more ossification
centers exist in each flat skull
bone and mature skull bones
result from fusion of these
centers as they enlarge.
o The trabeculae are constantly
remodeled and they may
enlarge or be replaced by
compact bone.
Bone Cells
➢ Endochondral bone formation is
bone formation within a cartilage
model.
➢ The cartilage model is replaced by
bone.
o Initially formed is a primary
ossification center, which is
bone formation in the diaphysis
of a long bone.
o A secondary ossification center
is bone formation in the
epiphysis.
 Steps in Endochondral Ossification
1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage
model, the chondroblasts become
chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies
(hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified
cartilage and a primary ossification
center forms diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers
form epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost
completely ossified and remaining
cartilage is articular cartilage.
Bone Growth in Width
➢ Bone growth occurs by the
deposition of new bone lamellae
onto existing bone or other
connective tissue.
▪ As osteoblasts deposit new
bone matrix on the surface of
bones between the periosteum
and the existing bone matrix,
the bone increases in width, or
diameter.
▪ This process is called
appositional growth.
Bone Growth in Length
➢ Growth in the length of a bone,
which is the major source of
increased height in an individual,
occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
▪ This type of bone growth occurs
through endochondral
ossification.
▪ Chondrocytes increase in
number on the epiphyseal side
of the epiphyseal plate.
▪ Then the chondrocytes enlarge
and die.
▪ The cartilage matrix becomes
calcified.
Much of the cartilage that
▪ ▪
forms around the enlarged cells
is removed by osteoclasts, and
the dying chondrocytes are
replaced by osteoblasts.
The osteoblasts start forming
▪ o Example - glenoid fossa
bone by depositing bone
lamellae on the surface of the
calcified cartilage.
This process produces bone on
▪ □
the diaphyseal side of the
epiphyseal plate.
Bone Remodeling
Bone remodeling involves:
□ removal of existing bone by
osteoclasts and
□ deposition of new bone by
osteoblasts
□ occurs in all bones
□ responsible for changes in bone
shape, bone repair, adjustment of
bone to stress, and
□ calcium ion regulation
Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and
a blood clot forms.
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous
network between 2 fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then,
osteoblasts enter the callus and
form cancellous bone this
continues for 4-6 weeks after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly
remodeled to form compact and
cancellous bone.
Bone Repair
➢ Bone is a major storage site for
calcium
➢ Calcium moves into bone as
osteoblasts build new bone
▪ Movement of calcium in and
out of bone helps determine
blood levels of calcium
▪ Calcium move out of bone as
osteoclasts break down bone
▪ Calcium homeostasis is
maintained by parathyroid
hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
Bone Repair
□ Foramen:
hole
o Example - foramen
magnum
□ Fossa:
▪ Depression
□ Process:
▪ Projection
o Example - mastoid process
Condyle:
▪ smooth, rounded end
o Example - occipital
condyle
□ Meatus:
▪ canal-like passageway
o Example - external
auditory meatus
□ Tubercle:
▪ lump of bone
o Example - greater tubercle
Axial Skeleton
▪ The axial skeleton is composed of
the skull, the vertebral column,
and the thoracic cage.
▪ The skull has 22 bones divided
into those of the braincase and
those of the face.
▪ The braincase, which encloses
the cranial cavity, consists of 8
bones that immediately surround
and protect the brain.
▪ The bony structure of the face
has 14 facial bones.
▪ Thirteen of the facial bones are
rather solidly connected to form
the bulk of the face.
▪ The mandible, however, forms a
freely movable joint with the rest
of the skull.
▪ There are also three auditory
ossicles in each middle ear (six
total).
Cranial Bones
➢ Frontal bone
o Anterior part of cranium
➢ Parietal bones
o Sides and roof of cranium
➢ Occipital bones
o Posterior portion and floor
of cranium
➢ Temporal bones
o Inferior to parietal bones
on each side of the
cranium
o Temporomandibular joint
➢ Sphenoid bone
o Forms part of cranium
floor, lateral posterior
portions of eye orbits,
lateral portions of cranium
anterior to temporal bones
o Sella turcica
➢ Ethmoid bone
o Anterior portion of
cranium, including medial
surface of eye orbit and
roof of nasal cavity
o Nasal conchae
 Facial Bones muscles, and it is an attachment o Floating ribs:
point for important neck muscles ▪ not attached to sternum
□ Maxillae that elevate the larynx.
▪ Form upper jaw, anterior Bones of the Pectoral Girdle
portion of hard palate, Vertebral Column
part of lateral walls of □ Scapula:
nasal cavity, floors of eye o The vertebral column, or spine, is ▪ Shoulder blade
orbits the central axis of the skeleton, □ Clavicle:
▪ Maxillary sinus extending from the base of the ▪ Collar bone
□ Palatine bones skull to slightly past the end of the
pelvis.
Upper Limb Bones
▪ Form posterior portion of
hard palate, lateral wall of o In adults, it usually consists of 26 □ Humerus
nasal cavity individual bones, grouped into ▪ Upper limbs
□ Zygomatic bones five regions. □ Ulna
▪ Cheek bones o The adult vertebral column has ▪ Forearms
▪ Also form floor and lateral four major curvatures: cervical, □ Radius
wall of each eye orbit thoracic, lumbar and ▪ Forearms
□ Lacrimal bones sacrococcygeal. □ Carpals
▪ Medial surfaces of eye o The cervical region curves ▪ Wrist
orbits anteriorly. □ Metacarpals
□ Nasal bones o The thoracic region curves ▪ Hand
▪ Form bridge of nose posteriorly.
□ Vomer o The lumbar region curves Pelvic Girdle
▪ In midline of nasal cavity anteriorly
o The sacral and coccygeal Where lower limbs attach to the body
▪ Forms nasal septum with
the ethmoid bone regions together curve posteriorly □ Pelvis
□ Inferior nasal conchae 7 cervical vertebra ▪ includes pelvic girdle
▪ Attached to lateral walls of 12 thoracic vertebra and coccyx
nasal cavity 5 lumbar vertebra □ Ischium
□ Mandible 1 sacrum ▪ inferior and posterior
▪ Lower jawbone 1 coccyx region
▪ Only movable skull bone o Atlas: □ Ilium
▪ 1st vertebra ▪ most superior region
Facial Bones ▪ holds head □ Acetabulum
o Axis: ▪ hip socket (joint)
➢ Several of the bones associated ▪ 2nd vertebra
with the nasal cavity have large ▪ rotates head Lower Limb Bones
cavities within them, called the
paranasal sinuses which open Functions of Vertebral Column □ Femur
into the nasal cavity. ▪ thigh
□ Supports body weight □ Patella
The paranasal sinuses are: □ Protects the spinal cord ▪ Knee cap
□ Allows spinal nerves to exit the □ Tibia
□ Frontal spinal cord
□ Ethmoid ▪ Large lower leg
□ Provides a site for muscle □ Fibula
□ Sphenoid attachment
□ Maxillary ▪ Small lower leg
□ Provides movement of the □ Tarsals
head and trunk ▪ Ankle
Hyoid Bone
Thoracic Cage □ Metatarsals
➢ The hyoid bone is an unpaired, U- ▪ Foot
shaped bone that is not part of ➢ Protects vital organs □ Phalanges
the skull and has no direct bony ➢ 12 pair of ribs ▪ Toes and Fingers
attachment to the skull or any o Sternum:
other bones. ▪ breastbone
Articulations

➢ The hyoid bone has the unique
distinction of being the only bone
in the body that does not
articulate with another bone.
➢ The hyoid bone provides an
attachment for some tongue
o True ribs: ➢ Articulations (joints) are where two
▪ attach directly to bones come together.
sternum by cartilage o Joints can be classified
o False ribs: structurally as fibrous,
▪ attach indirectly to cartilaginous, or synovial,
sternum by cartilage according to the major
connective tissue type that binds
 the bones together and whether
a fluid-filled joint capsule is
present.
o Joints are also be classified in
functional categories according
to their degree of motion as
synarthroses, amphiarthroses, or
diarthroses.

Structural Classification of Joints

□ Fibrous joint:
→ united by fibrous connective
tissue
→ subclasses are sutures,
syndesmosis, and gomphoses
□ Cartilaginous:
→ united by means of cartilage
→ subclasses are synchondroses
and symphysis
□ Synovial:
→ joined by a fluid cavity
→ Most joints of the
appendicular skeleton
□ Synarthrosis:
→ non-movable joint
→ Example – skull bone
articulations
□ Amphiarthrosis:
→ slightly movable joint
→ Example - between
vertebrae
□ Diarthrosis:
→ freely movable joint
→ Example - knee, elbow, and
wrist articulations

Types of Movements

□ Flexion: bending
□ Extension: straightening
□ Abduction: movement away
from midline
□ Adduction: movement toward
the midline
□ Pronation: rotation of the
forearm with palms down
□ Supination: rotation of the
forearm with palms up
□ Rotation: movement of a
structure about the long axis

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal

System and Joints

(1) Decreased Collagen Production

(2) Loss of Bone Density
(3) Degenerative Changes