Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

On the prediction of toxic fumes from underground blasting operations and T

dilution ventilation. Conventional and numerical models
⁎
Susana Torno , Javier Toraño
Mining and Civil Works Research Group, School of Mines, Oviedo University, Asturias, Spain

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: One of the techniques used to excavate tunnels and underground spaces is the drilling and blasting method.
Blasting Blasting is an intermittent activity and the concentration of contaminants in the affected parts often greatly
Toxic fumes exceeds the maximum concentrations (Time-Weighted Average and Ceiling Limit) for a period of time until the
Dilution ventilation fumes are diluted by the ventilation currents.
Conventional model
There are different algorithms for calculation of gas clearance after blasting in development headings. As seen
CFD model
in Torno et al. (2013), these models are only appropriate when the area of the gallery, the auxiliary ventilation
system and the mass of explosive used are very close to the characteristics of the tests conducted from which the
mentioned algorithms were obtained. With re-entry time after blasting in a development heading of 30 min of
difference between some models and others.
The first aim of this study was to develop algorithms based on experimental measurements and to include the
fundamental parameters of dilution directly in these algorithms: cross-sectional area of the drive (area of the face
advance), mass of explosive used in the blast, time for the air to clear, distance from the end of the ventilation
duct to the face and quantity of air sweeping the face (flow of the auxiliary ventilation). Models indicating re-
entry times of 32 and 5 min for the particular conditions of the studied zone.
The second aim of this study was to develop 4D models of gas behaviour by Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD). CFD model results were validated and compared with experimental measurements and with the math-
ematical algorithms developed in this study. Based on these CFD models, other dilution behaviour models of
blasting gases can be developed for other cross-sectional areas, other mass of explosive and other ventilation
parameters.
These mathematical algorithms and CFD models represent powerful tools to be able to analyse dilution of
fumes by the ventilation and re-entry of the workers after blasting in a development heading (third aim of this
study).
In the first two aims the test gallery had a section of 12 m2 and CO was the gas analysed. The third aim was
carried out in a tunnel of 67 m2 and NO2 was the gas analysed. The results obtained prove the importance of the
analysis by Computational Fluid Dynamics.

1. Introduction
One of the techniques used to excavate tunnels and underground
spaces is the drilling and blasting method. Blasting is an intermittent
activity carried out when people are removed from the underground
areas affected by the fumes (gases and dust) generated by the blast.
(NIOSH, 2001; Sapko et al., 2002; Mainiero, 2003; Harris et al., 2005;
Mainiero et al., 2007; ISEE, 2016).
The concentration of contaminants in the affected parts of the un-
derground space often greatly exceeds the maximum concentrations for
a brief period of time until the fumes are diluted by the ventilation
currents. These peaks generally have duration of a few minutes and
they occur whenever blasting takes place.
The methods for the control of gases in underground spaces are:
prevention, extraction, isolation, containment and dilution. One of the
most effective mechanisms to control blasting fumes and to reduce their
concentration to acceptable levels of safety is the use of auxiliary
ventilation (dilution).
Studies conducted by Kissell and Wallhagen (1976), Haney et al.
(1982), Schultz et al. (1993) and Toraño et al. (2009) proved that the
face ventilation effectiveness (FVE), or proportion of fresh air reaching
the working face, ranges from 35% to 40% for a forcing ventilation

⁎
Corresponding author at: Independencia 13, 33005 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain.
E-mail address: tornosusana@uniovi.es (S. Torno).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2019.103194
Received 10 July 2019; Received in revised form 20 October 2019; Accepted 13 November 2019
Available online 28 November 2019
0886-7798/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Torno and J. Toraño
Fig. 1. Sketch of the underground mine, where 1, 2 and 3 are the roadways where the tests were carried out.
system, whereas it ranges from 10% to 12% for an exhausting venti-
lation system.
Requirements of the gases that must be taken into account for the
worker re-entry after blasting in a development heading are: TWA
(Time-Weighted Average) or the average concentration to which
workers can be exposed for an 8 h shift and a 40 h work week without
known adverse effects, STEL or the Short-Term Exposure Limit and
Ceiling Limit or concentration that should not be exceeded at any time
(McPherson, 1993; NIOSH, 1994; European Committee for
Standardization, 2004; Bajpayee et al., 2005; Gherghel, 2010; ACGIH,
2012; Katsabanis and Taylor, 2014).
There are different algorithms to calculate gas clearance after
blasting in development headings (Howes, 1983; Hine and Jones, 1985;
De Souza and Katsabanis, 1991; Gillies et al., 2004; Rodríguez et al.,
2007). As seen in Torno et al. (2013), these models are only appropriate
when the area of the gallery, the auxiliary ventilation system and the
mass of explosive used are very close to the characteristics of the tests
conducted from which the mentioned algorithms were obtained.
The first aim of this study will be to develop algorithms based on
experimental measurements and to include the fundamental parameters
of dilution directly in these algorithms: cross-sectional area of the drive
(area of the face advance), mass of explosive used in the blast, time for
the air to clear, distance from the end of the ventilation duct to the face
and quantity of air sweeping the face (flow of the auxiliary ventilation).
These algorithms are useful to gain some idea of what to expect but
should not be relied on as the sole indicator of when it is safe to return.
The only real indicator for safe re-entry is accurate measurement of the
contaminants involved.
When conventional methods are used to calculate auxiliary venti-
lation, Torno et al. (2013), the results are poor since they are based on
calculation of airflow and pressure values in a fixed instant and for a
unique point of a unique section of the underground work (Toraño
et al., 2002).
It is necessary the analysis of auxiliary ventilation by means of 3D
computational methods taking into account time (4D) and validating
these models by measurement programmes (Wala et al., 2003; Parra
et al., 2005; Toraño et al., 2006, 2009, 2011; Diego et al., 2011; Torno
2
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194
et al., 2010, 2013; Nan et al., 2015; Luo et al., 2015; Shao et al., 2016;
Ulecia, 2016).
The second aim of this study will be to develop 4D models of gas
behaviour by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). CFD model results
will be validated and compared with experimental measurements and
with the mathematical algorithms developed in this study. Based on
these CFD models, other dilution behaviour models of blasting gases
can be developed for other cross-sectional areas, other mass of ex-
plosive and other ventilation parameters.
These mathematical algorithms and CFD models represent powerful
tools to be able to analyse dilution of fumes by the ventilation and re-
entry of the workers after blasting in a development heading (third aim
of this study).
In the first two aims the test gallery had a section of 12 m2 and CO
will be the gas analysed. The third aim was carried out in a tunnel of
67 m2 and NO2 will be the gas analysed.
2. Underground airflow and blasting toxic gas measurements
This study was made in the underground mine of Hullera Vasco
Leonesa (HVL) located in the North of Spain. For the experimental
study, 3 measurement programmes were carried out in roadways ex-
cavated in rock at a depth of 400 m. The tests were carried out in zone A
where the roadways are located.
The explosives used were Riodin 9 which produce per kg of ex-
plosive (according to Maxam company) 0.015895 m3 of CO and
0.008415 m3 of NO2. In the measurement programmes of the blasting
gases, fifteen blasts were conducted with 10 kg of explosive each.
The parameters considered were an arched-section heading of
3.15 m high and 4.4 m wide (12 m2), 30 boreholes of 45 mm in dia-
meter were opened at the heading face and the detonators used were
Riodet (numbers 1–5) with 30 ms delays for #1 and 150 ms delays for
#5. A total of 73 blasts were monitored by continuous measuring
sensors of CO and NO2 (Harris and Mainiero, 2008).
These measurements were taken with an Altair 5x and Trolex
TX6373 equipment with a suction pump incorporated which allows to
place the equip ment protected at a certain distance from the blast. The
S. Torno and J. Toraño Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194

Fig. 2. Sketches of the blasts and the forcing ventilation system. Q is the flow of the auxiliary ventilation, d is the distance from the end of the ventilation duct to the
face, S is the cross-section and D is the measuring equipment distance to the heading face.

mentioned equipment was in connection with a computer to download blast, Q is the quantity of air sweeping the face, d is the distance from
data and to obtain continuous recording (see Fig. 1). the end of the ventilation duct to the face y D is the measuring equip-
Fig. 2a shows a sketch of the blast. Fig. 2b depicts the sketch of the ment distance to the heading face. These parameters have been chosen
forcing ventilation system used. Table 1 illustrates Altair5x and Trolex because they are the fundamental parameters of fume dilution (Howes,
TX6373 specifications for Oxygen (O2), Carbon monoxide (CO), Ni- 1983; Hine and Jones, 1985; De Souza and Katsabanis, 1991; Gillies
trogen dioxide (NO2) and Carbon dioxide (CO2). Fig. 3 shows the et al., 2004; Rodríguez et al., 2007; Torno et al., 2013). These para-
multigas detector equipment installed in cross-section D. meters have been collected during the measurement programmes.
Three experimental measurement programmes were carried out. The third experimental test (ET #3) was as follows: a total of 32
The first experimental test (ET #1) was as follows: a total of 15 blasts, blasts to obtain the experimental curves of CO concentration evolution
80 kg of mass of explosive used in each blast, a 600 mm in diameter versus time. CO concentration measurements were continuously mon-
forcing duct located at 12 m from the face with an airflow of 12 m/s itored in one point of the heading located at 2.7 m from the floor in two
and the measuring equipment was at a distance of 20 m from the sections (A and B) located at 20 and 30 m of distance from the heading
heading face. CO concentration measurements were continuously face.
monitored in four points of the cross-section (Fig. 4a). The obtained
data were used for the adjustment of the computational numerical
3. Experimental measurements and dilution mathematical models
models.
The second experimental test (ET #2) was as follows: a total of 26
3.1. Dilution mathematical models
blasts to obtain the experimental curves of CO concentration evolution
versus time. CO concentration measurements were continuously mon-
Fig. 5 shows the experimental curves of CO concentration evolution
itored in a point of the cross-section (Fig. 4b). Table 2 shows the
after blasting versus time (measurement programme ET #2). The values
minimum and maximum values of the blasting parameters, where S is
of this measurement programme and the adjustment mathematical
the area of the face advance, M is the mass of explosive used in the
curve (Eq.1) of the point cloud (algorithm for calculation of gas clear-
ance after blasting) have a statistical adjustment coefficient of
Table 1
R2 = 0.98.
Altair 5x and Trolex TX6373 specifications.
Blasting gases Altair 5x Trolex TX6373 COi Q×t
COf = × e−K × V Blast Gas Clearing
2 (1)
Sensing range Precision Sensing range Precision
where COi is the initial gas concentration (ppm), t is the time after
Oxygen O2 0–30% vol. 0.1% vol. 0–50% vol. ± 5% blasting (seconds), COf is the final gas concentration (ppm), Q is the
Carbon monoxide CO 0–2000 ppm 1 ppm 0–500 ppm ± 2%
quantity of air sweeping the face (m3/s), V is the S × d (S is the area of
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 0–20 ppm 05 ppm 0–20 ppm ± 2%
Carbon dioxide CO2 0–10% vol 0.01% vol – – the face advance and d is the distance from the end of the ventilation
duct to the face) and K is a constant (0.48).

3
S. Torno and J. Toraño Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194

Fig. 3. Altaix5x, Trolex TX6373 and Central Control Room.

Fig. 6 shows the curve of the values obtained by Eq. (1) with K = 1 Table 2
(dashed line) and the curve obtained from the statistical adjustment of Blasting parameters.
the values of the measurement programme #3 (solid line). Both curves ET #2 S (m2) M (kg) Delay (s) Q (m3/s) d (m) D (m)
have an adjustment of R2 = 0.87.
Minimum 12.4 65 96 1.100 11.5 20
Maximum 12.4 102 135 1.292 19 35
3.2. Practical significance ET #3 S (m2) M (kg) Delay (s) Q (m3/s) d (m) D (m)

Table 3 shows the values of TWA (Time-Weighted Average), STEL Minimum 12.4 13.2 96 2.04 7.5 24.4
(Short-Term Exposure Limit) for regulations of different countries. Maximum 12.4 43.75 135 3.14 16.25 41.9
Fig. 7 shows the adjustment curve of the measurement programme
ET #2 together with the horizontal line (solid line) corresponding to a
4. Computational models of gas dilution
TWA of 50. The experimental value of dilution time between the
minimum value and the maximum value is 20 min and the average
4.1. Model description
value is slightly closer to the maximum value.
Table in Fig. 7 shows the time to achieve air clearance and to reach
In order to obtain efficiency in gas dilution in underground works, it
the required gas concentration for each TWA of 4 international reg-
is necessary to analyse the evolution of ventilation in any cross-section
ulations in the 3 measurement programmes. The more restricted TWA
and in any horizontal and vertical section following the direction of the
value is the greater the time will be. The difference between the most
gallery which implies a 3D analysis. Besides, it is important to take into
permissive regulation and the most restricted one is 6 min.
account the influence of time (4D) on the mentioned ventilation.
Table 4 shows the necessary time to achieve TWA = 50 ppm in the
This can be successfully carried out by means of CFD models
mathematical algorithms of De Souza and Katsabanis (1991), Howes
(Toraño et al., 2006, 2009, 2011; Torno et al., 2010, 2013). Just as it is
(1983), Torno et al. (2013) and Eq. (1).
widely shown in these references, software Ansys CFX was used for the
Time differences between measurement programmes #1 and #2
numerical simulations solving the 3D Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes
and programme #3 are due to the different values of: mass of explosive
equations by the finite volume method.
used in the blast, cross-sectional area of the drive and distance from the
The equations that govern fluid flow are the Navier Stokes equation,
end of the ventilation duct to the face. These differences in time in-
which relates the velocity to pressure fields as well as density; the
dicate the need to have a law of gas dilution for the particular condi-
continuity equation, which expresses the mass conservation; finally, the
tions of each blasting and to include the characteristics of the gallery,
energy equation, which relates temperature fields. These expressions
blasting and ventilation system, in the mentioned law.
create a system of differential equations that only can be solved in the
These algorithms are useful to gain some idea of what to expect but
vast majority of cases, by numerical methods, that is to say,
should not be relied on as the sole indicator of when it is safe to return.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
The only real indicator for safe re-entry is accurate measurement of the
Turbulence models, which can be used in CFD, range from the
contaminants involved.
simplest Zero Equation Models to more complicated models such as LES
It is necessary the analysis of auxiliary ventilation by means of
(Large Eddy Simulation) or DES (Dettached Eddy Simulation).
computational methods, taking into account time and validating these
RANS methods (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes) are intermediate
models by measurement programmes.

Fig. 4. Monitored points of the cross-section.

4
S. Torno and J. Toraño
Fig. 5. Experimental curves of CO concentration after blasting and Eq. (1) vs. time.
Fig. 6. Curve of the values obtained by Eq. (1) (dashed line) and curve obtained from the statistical adjustment of the values of programme ET #3 (solid line).
models extensively used in engineering. Between these one can make
use of the Spalart-Allmaras model, in which one equation is added to
the calculation, k-epsilon models with two equations, or Shear Stress
Transport (SST) models with seven equations. k-epsilon model with its
different variants is the most used.
Different authors such, as Norton et al. (2007), Sorensen and
Nielsen (2003), Moloney et al. (1999), Li et al. (2016) and Moloney and
Lowndes (1999), consider that a good correlation between measured
and predicted results is obtained when k-epsilon turbulence model is
used in order to simulate airflow and pollutants in tunnels and road-
ways. Moreover Toraño et al. (2009), have determined that k-epsilon
models offer better results when comparing to experimental data.
Torno et al. (2011) have obtained good results using Large Eddy
Simulation (LES) turbulence models, in turbulent multiphase flow
generated inside a hydrocyclone, in comparison with other RANS tur-
bulence models. So, this model was added to those analysed by Toraño
et al. (2009) in order to choose the turbulence model with the best
agreement with experimental data. It was proved that LES model
showed higher R2 coefficient than the rest of the turbulence models.
5
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194
More recently, LES turbulence model was used for the study of
blasting gas dilution (Torno et al., 2013), obtaining a good correlation
with experimental data. Given the good results obtained, this study
continues with the use of Large Eddy Simulation (LES) turbulence
model.
In this research work, modelling was carried out using CFD
(Computational Fluid Dynamics) through Ansys CFX code. Solidworks
(Computer-aided geometric modelling) was used for three-dimensional
modelling, ICEM-CFD in the domain meshing and Ansys CFX as a solver
and post processing of the results.
The geometry and meshing were developed in 3D by a real scale: a
cross-sectional area of 12 m2 with a gallery of 100 m in length and the
characteristics of the auxiliary forcing ventilation system, a duct of
600 mm in diameter and located at 12 m from the face. The model
meshing was created with 988,419 elements. In this study two types of
mesh were applied: tetrahedrons in the centre of the roadway and
prisms in the vicinity of the walls, with ICEM-CFD software (Fig. 8).
Tests of mesh-independence were conducted based on three dif-
ferent meshing creations, a coarse mesh (776,458 elements), a fine
S. Torno and J. Toraño Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194

Table 3 Table 4
Exposure limits for CO. Necessary time to achieve TWA = 50 ppm.
CO (ppm) E.T. De Souza and Katsabanis Howes Torno et al. Eq. (1)
(1991) (1983) (2013)
Guidelines TWA STEL
1y2 63 24 18 32
ASM-2 50 100 3 31 15 14 5
NOHSC 30 200
McPherson 1993 50 400
NIOSH REL 35 200
this study can be found in Fig. 8.
Gherghel Canada 25 2
OSHA PEL 35 200
ACGIH® TLV 50 400
4.2. Results and validation
ASM = Instructions Techniques Complementary to Mining Safety Actions
Spain; NOHSC = Nacional Occupational Health & Safety Commission, Australia CFD models were validated by means of experimental data taken in
(Gillies et al., 2004); NIOSH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and the measurement programmes indicated in Section 2. In Fig. 9, ex-
Health (USA); OSHA = Occupational Safety & Health Administration (USA); perimental values and CFD mathematical models are shown for a cross-
ACGIH® = American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; section located at a distance of 20 m from the face.
TWA = (Time-Weighted Average) is the average concentration to which nearly It can be seen how CO concentration values obtained by CFD models
all workers may be exposed over an 8 h shift and a 40 h work week without (P1, P2, P4 and P4) are slightly higher than experimental values (P1E,
known adverse effects; STEL = (Short-Term Exposure Limit) is a time-weighted P2E, P4E and P6E) although they follow the same trend. The difference
average concentration occurring over a period of not more than 15 min.
between CFD and experimental values is owing to the fact that a small
quantity of the gases produced during blasting can remain en-trapped
mesh (1,675,893 elements) and an intermediate mesh (988,419 ele-
in the muck pile, De Souza and Katsabanis (1991), or removed by
ments). The results obtained with the fine mesh led to no appreciable
dissolution in the mine water.
change in the result, whereas the precision of the obtained results di-
Fig. 10 shows the correlation between CFD and experimental values
minishes with the coarse mesh. Based on the results, an intermediate
(R2 > 0.99) in 4 points of a cross-section located at 20 m from the face
mesh, with a quality of 0.35, which is considered to be acceptable for
and for 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 min.
the Icem CFD support, was selected.
From CFD models properly validated, quantity and type of ex-
Once the geometry and meshing have been carried out, the fol-
plosive, size of the heading and ventilation parameters (airflow, velo-
lowing step is the physical definition of the model and the character-
city in the duct outlet and distance of this from the heading face) can be
ization of the boundary conditions.
quickly and accurately changed to obtain CFD mathematical models of
The CFD model used has three types of boundary conditions: Wall,
blasting gas dilution.
Opening and Inlet. There are two Inlets. One located at the ductwork
Fig. 11 shows CO concentration isocontours of a cross-section lo-
outlet with an airflow velocity of 12 m/s. The second Inlet characterizes
cated at a distance of 20 m from the face and for a time after blasting of
the CO emission from the heading face at 0.665 kg/m3. The Opening
10 min (a), 20 min (b), 30 min (c) and 40 min (d). Average values of the
coincides with the airflow and gas outlet from the heading. The walls of
experimental measurements (EXP) and those predicted by CFD are in-
the model are simulated as smooth roughness, except the tube that is
dicated in the four points of the cross-section.
free slip wall.
The relationship between COf values obtained by CFD model and
Geometry, meshing and boundary conditions of the model used in
those obtained by Eq. (1) (R2 = 0.99) can be found in Fig. 12.

Fig. 7. Time to achieve air clearance and to reach the required gas concentration (TWA of 4 international regulations and 3 measurement programmes).

6
S. Torno and J. Toraño Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194

Fig. 8. Geometry, meshing and boundary conditions of the model.

5. Practical significance: study of dilution of fumes by the

ventilation. Re-entry after blasting in a development heading

The key contaminants are considered to be CO and NO2. In this

Fig. 9. Experimental values vs. CFD models.
section it will be studied the process of dilution of NO2 blasting gas
along the development heading (Fig. 13), where: Q = 39 m3/s (quan-
tity of air sweeping the face or fauxiliary ventilation flow), d = 30 m
(distance from the end of the ventilation duct to the face), L = 500 m in
length of the fume throwback and M = 250 kg (mass of explosive used
in the blast).
Measurements of NO2 concentration were continuously monitored
in three cross-sections (a point at 2.4 m from the floor in each cross
section) and at distances from the heading face of D = 5 m, D = 250 m
and D = 495 m.
Fig. 14 shows the dilution curves of NO2 obtained in the heading
face by De Sousa’s algorithm 1993, by Eq. (1) modified ST_JT (or Eq.
(2)), by CFD models and by experimental measurements.

Fig.10. Correlation between CFD and experimental values.

7
S. Torno and J. Toraño Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194

Fig. 11. CO concentration isocontours of a cross-section located at a distance of 20 m from the face.

Fig. 12. Relationship between COf values obtained by CFD model and those obtained by Eq. (1).

Fig. 13. Sketch of the forcing ventilation system.

8
S. Torno and J. Toraño Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194

Fig. 14. NO2 dilution curves.

Fig. 15. NO2 dilution curves along the tunnel and according to time.

9
S. Torno and J. Toraño
Fig. 16. Relationship between CFD values and experimental values.
NO2i −⎛ 20·Q ⎞×t
NO2f = ·e ⎝ 4xV ⎠ Blast Gas Clearing
2 (2)
where: NO2f is the final gas concentration (ppm), NO2i is the initial
gas concentration (ppm), t is the time after blasting (seconds), Q is the
quantity of air sweeping the face (m3/s) and V is the S × d (S is the area
of the face advance and d is the distance from the end of the ventilation
duct to the face).
Fig. 15 shows NO2i dilution curves along the tunnel and according
to time. Fig. 16 illustrates the relationship between CFD values and
experimental values keeping the other parameters of the blast equal.
It is important to highlight:
(a) For a TWA = 3 ppm of NO2, the required time to dilute blast gases
(re-entry time after blasting in a development heading), calculated
by the dilution algorithms, is 23.8 min and that re-entry time cal-
culated by CFD models is 45 min (Fig. 17a).
(b) For a Ceiling Limit = 5 ppm of NO2, the required time to dilute
blast gases (re-entry time after blasting in a development heading),
calculated by the dilution algorithms, is 22.5 min and that re-entry
time calculated by CFD models is 43.3 min (Fig. 17b).
Fig. 17. Required time to dilute blasting gases.
10
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194
6. Conclusions
An exponential function was obtained for calculation of gas clear-
ance after blasting with a correct statistical adjustment by means of
experimental values. Area of the face advance, mass of explosive used
in the blast, time for the air to clear, distance from the end of the
ventilation duct to the face and quantity of air sweeping the face in-
tervene in this equation.
In the first tests the galleries had a section of 12 m2 and CO was the
gas analysed. The second tests were carried out in a tunnel of 67 m2 and
NO2 was the gas analysed.
4D models of gas behaviour were developed by Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD). They were validated and compared with experimental
measurements and with the mathematical algorithms developed in this
study.
Based on these CFD, models other models for other cross-sectional
areas, other mass of explosive and other ventilation parameters were
developed with satisfactory results.
As an example, CFD models were applied to analyse dilution of
fumes by the ventilation and re-entry time of the workers after blasting
in a development heading. The obtained results prove the importance of
the analysis by Computational Fluid Dynamics.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This study was carried out by the Mining and Civil Works Research
Group of Oviedo University in collaboration with HVL Company (CN-
14-038). We would like to thank HVL Company for the access to their
underground mines and for financing this study.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2019.103194.
S. Torno and J. Toraño
References
ACGIH, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienist, 2012. Threshold
Limit Values for Chemical Substances an Physical Agents & Biological Exposure
Indices. Signature Publications, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Bajpayee, T., Verakis, H., Lobb, T., 2005. Blasting safety – revisiting site security. In:
Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of Explosives and Blasting Technique,
February 6–9th, vol. 2. International Society of Explosive Engineers, Orlando,
Florida, pp. 1–13.
De Souza, E.M., Katsabanis, P.D., 1991. On the prediction of blasting toxic fumes and
dilution ventilation. Min. Sci. Technol. 13, 223–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-
9031(91)91355-L.
Diego, I., Torno, S., Toraño, J., Menéndez, M., Gent, M., 2011. A practical use of CFD for
ventilation of underground works. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 26, 189–200.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2010.08.002.
European Committee for Standardization, 2004. Explosives for Civil Uses – High
Explosives – Part 16: Detection and Measurement of Toxic Gases. European
Standardisation Organisation, Brussels.
Gillies, A.D.S., Wu, H.W., Shires, D., 2004. Development of an assessment tool to mini-
mize safe after blast re-entry time to improve the mining cycle. In: Proceedings, Tenth
US Mine. Ventilation Symposium, Anchorage, Balkema, The Netherlands, pp.
315–323.
Gherghel, C.F., 2010. The influence of ventilation modeling on production planning.
Thesis Master of Applied Science. Robert M. Buchan Department of Mining. Queen’s
University Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
Haney, R.A., Gigliotti, S.J., Banfield, J.L., 1982. Face ventilation systems performance in
low- height coal seams. Proceedings of the First Mine Ventilation Symposium.
Harris, M.L., Sapko, M.J., Mainiero, R.J., 2005. Field studies of CO migration from
blasting. In: Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
Technique, vol. II, February 6–9. International Society of Explosives Engineers,
Cleveland, OH, pp. 49–69.
Harris, M.L., Mainiero, R.J., 2008. Monitoring and removal of CO in blasting operations.
Saf. Sci. 46–10, 1393–1405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2007.10.003.
Hine, M., Jones, I.O., 1985. The analysis of post detonation fumes in an underground
operating environment – a case study. In: Mousset-Jones, P. (Ed.), Proceedings 2nd
U.S. Mine Vent Symp., Nevada-Reno, pp. 689–698.
Howes, M.J., 1983. Application of refrigeration in mines. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. (Sect.
A: Min. Ind.) 92, 339–342.
ISEE, International Society of Explosives Engineers, 2016. Blaster’s Handbook TM, 18th
ed., Cleveland, OH.
Katsabanis, P., Taylor, K., 2014. The role of the muckpile in the fumes produced by
commercial explosives. Blast. Fragment. 8 (2).
Kissell, F.N., Wallhagen, R.E., 1976. Some new approaches to improved ventilation of the
working face. In: Proceedings of the NCA/BCR Coal Conference (Louisville, KY,
October 19–21, 1976), pp. 325–338.
Li, M., Aminossadati, S.M., Wu, Ch., 2016. Numerical simulation of air ventilation in
super-large underground developments. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 52, 38–43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2015.11.009.
Luo, Y., Zhao, Y., Wang, Y., Chi, M., Wang, S., 2015. Distributions of airflow in four
rectangular section roadways with different supporting methods in underground coal
mines. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 46, 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.
2014.11.005.
Mainiero, R.J., 2003. Toxic fume comparison of a few explosives used in trench blasting.
In: 29th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique Location:
Nashville. USA, vol. 2. pp. 319–336.
Mainiero, R.J., Harris, M.L., Rowland, J.H., 2007. Dangers of toxic fumes from blasting.
International Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE). In: Proceedings of the 33rd
Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique. International Society of
Explosives Engineers, Nashville, TN, Cleveland, OH, pp. 1–6.
McPherson, M.J., 1993. Chapter 11 – Gases in Subsurface Openings, Subsurface
Ventilation and Environmental Engineering. Chapman & Hall, London.
Moloney, K.W., Lowndes, I.S., Hargrave, 1999. Analysis of flow patterns in drivages with
auxiliary ventilation. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. (Sect. A: Min. Ind.) 108, 17–26.
11
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 96 (2020) 103194
Moloney, K.W., Lowndes, I.S., 1999. Comparison of measured underground air velocities
and air flows simulated by computatinal fluid dynamics. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall.
(Sect. A: Min. Ind.) 108, 105–114.
Nan, Ch., Ma, J., Luo, Z., Zheng, S., Wang, Z., 2015. Numerical study on the mean velocity
distribution law of air backflow and the effective interaction length of airflow in
forced ventilated tunnels. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 46, 104–110. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tust.2014.11.006.
NIOSH, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1994. Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH). Retrieved from Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH). http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/default.html.
NIOSH, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,, 2001. Technology News
488 – Migration of Blasting Fumes into a Western Pennsylvania Home. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Pittsburgh, PA.
Norton, T., Sun, D.W., Grant, J., Fallon, R., Dodd, V., 2007. Applications of computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) in the modelling and design of ventilation systems in the
agricultural industry. Bioresour. Technol. 98, 2386–2414.
Parra, M.T., Villafruela, J.M., Castro, F., Mendez, C., 2005. Numerical and experimental
analysis of different ventilation systems in deep mines. Build. Environ. 41 (2), 87–93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.01.002.
Rodríguez, R., Toraño, J., Menéndez, M., 2007. Prediction of the airblast wave effects
near a tunnel advanced by drilling and blasting. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 22,
241–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2006.09.001.
Shao, S., Yang, X., Zhou, J., 2016. Numerical analysis of different ventilation schemes
during the construction process of inclined tunnel groups at the Changheba
Hydropower Station, China. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 59, 157–169. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tust.2016.07.007.
Sapko, M.J., Rowland, J.H., Mainiero, R.J., Zlochower, I.A., 2002. Chemical and physical
factors that influence NOx production during blasting: exploratory study.
Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique,
vol. 2, 317–330.
Schultz, M.J., Beiter, D.A., Watkins, T.R., Baran, J.N., 1993. Face ventilation investiga-
tion: Clark Elkhorn Coal Company, Ratliff mine No. 110, I.D. No. 15–16121,
Rockhouse Creek, Pike County, Kentucky. U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and
Health Administration, Pittsburgh Safety and Health Technology Center, Ventilation
Division, Pittsburgh, PA Investigative Report No. P385–V286.
Sorensen, D.N., Nielsen, P.V., 2003. Quality control of computational fluid dynamics in
indoor environments. Indoor Air 13, 2–17.
Toraño, J., Rodríguez, R., Cuesta, A., Diego, I., 2002. A computer program for calculating
ventilation in tunnelling works based on an explicit method. Tunn. Undergr. Space
Technol. 17 (3), 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-7798(01)00067-0.
Toraño, J., Rodríguez, R., Diego, I., 2006. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) use in the
simulation of the death end ventilation in tunnel and galleries. Trans. Eng. Sci. 52,
113–121. https://doi.org/10.2495/AFM06012.
Toraño, J., Torno, S., Menéndez, M., Gent, M.R., Velasco, J., 2009. Models of methane
behaviour in auxiliary ventilation of underground coal mining. Int. J. Coal Geol. 80
(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2009.07.008.
Toraño, J., Torno, S., Menéndez, M., Gent, 2011. Auxiliary ventilation in mining roadway
driven with roadheaders: validated CFD modelling of dust behaviour. Tunn. Undergr.
Space Technol 26, 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2010.07.005.
Torno, S., Toraño, J., Velasco, J., 2010. Study of ventilation inversion in mining roadways
and tunnel by CFD and experimental methods. WIT Trans. Eng. Sci. 69, 137–144.
https://doi.org/10.2495/AFM100121.
Torno, S., Toraño, J., Ulecia, M., Allende, C., 2013. Conventional and numerical models of
blasting gas behaviour in auxiliary ventilation of mining headings. Tunn. Undergr.
Space Technol. 34, 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2012.11.003.
Ulecia, M., 2016. Computational and numerical models of the behavior of blasting gases
in the auxiliary ventilation of mining galleries. Thesis. Department of Mining.
Oviedo University, Oviedo, Spain.
Wala, A., Jacob, J., Brown, J., Huang, G., 2003. New approaches to mine-face ventilation.
Miner. Eng. 55, 25–30.