LESSON 4 THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHT

•Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self”. One of the
most common distinctions between cultures and people is the eastern vs. western dichotomy, wherein
Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe, North and South America, Australia, and
New Zealand.
•It must be understood that this distinction and the countries included was politically colored during their
inception. Thus, we should be more open to other cultural differences in the perspective, formation, and
expression of the “self”.
•In the Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or varying perception regarding the self.

CONFUCIUS
•was the name for which Kong Zhongni of China was known in the West.
•Born in the period of the Zhou dynasty in 551 BCE in the small state of Lu.
•He grew up poor even though he descended from a scholarly family.
•The Zhou dynasty was characterized by political, social and moral disintegration in China.
Through all of there unrest, Confucius’ family made sure that he received proper education.
•Through scholarly study, Confucius came to be known as ‘Master Kong’ and as ‘Great Sage and Teacher’
(Koller, 2007)
•His experiences in politics made him focus on social reforms. His philosophy came to be known as
humanistic social philosophy. He considers the society and its communities as the main source of values of
both human beings and the society in general.

CONFUCIANISM
•A code of ethical conduct, of how should properly act according to their relationship with other people,
thus, it is also focus on having a harmonious social life. The identity and self-concept of the individual
therefore, is interwoven with the identity and status of his/her community or culture, sharing its pride as
well as its failures (Ho 1995).

Five Relationships: harmony in society is possible when people accept their plain in society. Key
relationships include father to son, older brother to younger brother, husband to wife, ruler to subject and
friend to friend. Except for friendship, none of these relationships is equal.
•Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life, but the characteristics of a chun-tzu, a man of virtue
or noble character, is still embedded in his/her social relationships.
•The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self” wherein personal needs
are repressed (subdued) for the good of many, making Confucian society also hierarchal for the purpose of
maintaining order and balance in society.

THE SELF IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT

Ren – the center of the philosophical concept of Confucianism which can be manifested through:
1.Li (propriety)
2.Xiao (filiality)
3.Yi (rightness)
•It can also be understood as human goodness.
•It involves feelings and thinking which serves as the foundation of all human relationships.
•Ren further signifies the Chinese culture’s emphasis on feelings (heart) as the most important instead of
the head in human nature.

1. Li (propriety) – in order to guide human actions, rules of propriety should be followed.

•Such rules involve adherence to the rituals of the community.
•In connection with the Li, Confucius stated “ to master oneself and return to propriety is humanity”.

2. Xiao (filiality) – the virtue of reverence and respect for family.

•Parents should be revered for the life they had given. Children should show respect to their
parents by exerting efforts to take care of themselves.
•The family is a reflection of the person. How the person interacts socially and the values he
emulates can all be traced back to his family environment. This forms the bases of the person’s
moral and social virtue.

3. Yi (rightness)– the right way of behaving. It is unconditional and absolute.

•Actions must be performed and carried out because they are the right actions.
•Obedience to parents, for instance is expected of children because it is morally right and
obligatory to do so.
•Confucius emphasized that actions should be performed because they are right and not for selfish benefits
that they provide.
•Li, Xiao and Yi are virtues observed in a person whose humanity is developed, morally Cultivated and
aware.

TAOISM
•Taoism (also called Daoism) is a religion and a philosophy from ancient China that has influenced folk and
national belief. Taoism has been connected to the philosopher Lao Tzu, who around 500 B.C.E. wrote the
main book of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching.
Taoism holds that humans and animals should live in balance with the Tao, or the universe. However,
Taoism rejects having one definition of what the Tao is, and one can only state clues of what it is as they
adapt a free-flowing, relative, unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost everything.
It rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought by Confucianism and would prefer a simple lifestyle. Thus, its
teachings aim to describe how to attain that life (Ho 1995).
The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is part of the universe, one of the forms
and manifestations of the Tao (Ho 1995).
The ideal self is selflessness, but this is not forgetting about the self, it is living a balanced-life with society
and nature, being open and accepting to change, forgetting about prejudices and egocentric ideas, and
thinking about equality, complementarity among humans as well as other beings (Ho 1995).
In this way, you will be able to act spontaneously because you will not be restricted by some legalistic
standards, since you are in harmony with everything.
TAOISM: SYMBOLS AND IMAGES
•Ying-yang diagram is the most important of all Taoist symbols, represents the movement of heaven or the
Tao. The small opposing dots in each area to represent the fact that in all evil there exist some good, while
in all the good there exist some evil. Also, it represents dark and bright, night and day, dry and moist,
aggressive and passive; sun and rain.
•Fu-Hsi is the creator of pakua – one of the Chinese cultural heroes.
•Pakua is the eight triagrams that constitutes the inner structure of the sixty-four hexagrams of I-ching. This
symbol created by Fu-Hsi.
•The dragon is one of the Yang symbols, represents the power, sage or saint.

BUDDISM
•Buddhism is one of the world’s largest religions. It originated in India in 563–483 B.C.E. with Siddhartha
Gautama, and over the next millennia it spread across Asia and the rest of the world.
•Buddhists believe that human life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but that if one achieves a state of
enlightenment (nirvana), it is possible to escape this cycle forever.
•They do not believe in any kind of deity or God, although there are supernatural figures who can help or
hinder people on the path towards enlightenment.
•Siddhartha Gautama was the first person to reach this state of enlightenment and was, and is still today,
known as the Buddha.
•Siddhartha Gautama was an Indian prince in the fifth century B.C.E. who, upon seeing people poor and
dying, realized that human life is suffering. He renounced his wealth and spent time as a poor beggar,
meditating and travelling but ultimately, remaining unsatisfied, settling on something called “the Middle
Way.” This idea meant that neither extreme asceticism or extreme wealth were the path to
enlightenment, but rather, a way of life between the two extremes.
•There are various groups who have adapted Buddhism; thus, you may find differences in their teachings,
but most likely, their core concepts remained the same.
•The self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold things, or human-centered needs,
thus the self is also the source of all these suffering. It is therefore our quest to forget about the self, forget
the cravings of the self, break the attachments you have with the world, and to renounce the self, which is
the cause of all suffering, and in doing so, attain the state of Nirvana (Ho 1995).

•Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self within a bigger context. The person, in striving to be a
better person, does not create a self above other people or nature, but a self that is beneficial to his/her
community as well as in order and in harmony with everything else.
•As for Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is totally taken, not just out of the
center of the picture, but out of the whole picture.

COMPARING WEST AND EAST

WESTERN
always looking toward the self
ex. you compare yourself so you can be better;
you create associations and bask in the glory of
that group for your self-esteem; you put primacy in
developing yourself.
looks at the world in dualities (you are distinct
from the other person, the creator is separate from
the object he/she created, in which the self is
distinguished and acknowledged (Wolter 2012).
EASTERN
Holistic approach – all events in the universe are
interconnected and that meditation and right
living are ways to search yourself.
Sees the other person as part of yourself as well
as the things you may create, a drama in which
everyone is interconnected with their specific roles
(Wolter 2012).
Asian in general, would talk about their social
roles or the social situations that invoked certain
 Americans, for example, talk more about their traits that they deem positive for themselves
personal attributes when describing themselves. (Gleitman et.al. 2011).

Americans, in terms of self-evaluation, would
highlight their personal achievements.
individualistic culture, since their focus is on the
person
By valuing the individual, they may seem to have
loose associations or even loyalty to their
groups. Competition is the name of the game and
they are more likely straightforward and forceful in
their communication as well as decision making.
Emphasis is more on the value of equality even if
they see that the individual can rise above
everything else. Because everyone is on their own
in the competition, one can say that they also
promote ideals that create a “fair” competition and
protect the individual.
Asian in general, would rather keep a low profile
as promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness
that disrupts social relationships (Gleitman et.al.
2011).
collectivistic culture, as the group and social
relations is given more importance than individual
needs and wants.
Look after the welfare of their groups and values
cooperation; more compromising, and they tend
to go around the bush in explaining things, hoping
that the other person would “feel” what they really
want to say (Qingxue 2003).
more emphasis on hierarchy – as culture wants to
keep things in harmony and in order (Qingxue
2003).

Westerners would most likely to call their boss, They have respectful terms for our seniors and a
parents, or other seniors by their first name. The lot of workers would not dare go against the high
boss can also be approached head-on when ranking officials (Qingxue 2003).
conflicts or problems about him/her arises.

•It must be emphasized however, that these are perceived general commonalities.
•In contemporary society, both the individualistic and collective self may exist in a single individual
through:
1.Result of migration and influences and intermarriages between people of the East and the West.
2. Sharing of knowledge and the influx of information from mass media and social media.

THEORIZING THE FILIPINO SELF

•It has been a trend for colonized countries to “decolonize” their perspective in order to see themselves
from their own social and cultural experience. The Philippines was not left behind by recent studies pushed
forth by Pilipinolohiya by Prospero Covar, Pantayong Pananaw by Zeus Salazar, and Sikolohiyang Pilipino
by Virgilio Enriquez.
•Utilizing tradition, native language and concepts, and even folklore, they uncovered a more context-
appropriate perspective of looking at the self. With Sikololohiyang Pilipino, Enriquez described the Filipino
“self” or personality as a “shared identity”, specifically connected to the concept of kapwa (Edman and
Kameoka 2000; Pe-Pua and Protacio-Marcelino 2000).
•Accordingly, we place importance to values that promote cooperation and social acceptance, because we
see the other person as fellow human beings and part of who we are (Edman and Kameoka 2000; Pe-Pua
and Protacio-Marcelino 2000). That is also why we have concepts, such as hiya, utang na loob, and
pakikisama, which reflect how we relate to others or want to be perceived by our kapwa.

Lesson 2 Physical Self

Shavelson describes the total self or general self as being made up of:
1. Academic self – influenced by the learning process and the individual’s emotions, behavior and
experiences during the learning process.
2. Non-academic self – shaped by an individual’s social self, emotional self, and physical self.
Social self – greatly influenced by parents, colleagues, friends, and acquaintances among others.
Emotional self – the person’s experiences of joy, anger, fear, anxiety, and other emotions.
Physical self – affected by involvement in sports, exercise, and other activities that enhance the physical
body (Medišauskaite 2009)

K.R. Fox (2000) emphasized the factors that encompass physical self-esteem, which include sport
competence, attractive body, physical power, and physical condition, and how they actually shape the
global self-esteem.
Physical self is the amazing vessel, complex, woven and knitted, finely tuned creature in which we interact
with our environment and fellow beings. The physical self is the concrete dimension, the tangible aspect
of the person that can be directly observed and examined. It is composed of systems that receive and
respond to various external and internal stimuli.

Sigmund Freud
Freud’s concept of self and personality makes the physical body the core of human experience.
He stated that ego is first and foremost a body ego.

Wilhem Reich
Reich emphasized the unity of the mind and body.
The body is central to all dynamic psychological functioning and it plays a very important role in storing and
channeling the bioenergy, which is considered as the basis of human existence and experience.

Erik Erikson
Erikson considered experience as firmly associated on the ground-plan of the body. He stated that organs
of the body are essential during the early developmental stages of a person.
The formation and development of the physical and intellectual skills greatly influence the ability of the
individual to choose his role in the society and be fulfilled..
Physical health is directly correlated to the competence of children.
Healthy children are more competent and therefore, will become more capable of acquiring complex skills
than children who are undernourished and sickly.
He also highlighted the incessant interplay of the body, psychological processes, and social forces (Singh
2020).

Abraham Maslow
Maslow provided the Hierarchy of Needs about our physical bodies.
Once the physiological needs are met, the person becomes dedicated in attaining the higher-order needs.
That is why he emphasized that we give due attention to all the needs of the body.
A well-nourished , loved, respected individual experiences fullfillment. On the otherhand, deliberate, self-
denial and rejection of the body’s basic needs will result to an inactive, crippled organism.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Psychological Needs – Food, Water, Sleep, Warmth, Sex
Safety Needs – Personal and Financial Security, Wellbeing
Social Needs – Friendship, Intimacy and Family
Esteem Needs – Freedom, Recognition, Self-Confidence, Attention, Competence
Self-Actualization – Achieving Full Potential, Seeking happiness

Psychologists have their own views of the physical body. But one thing is common and that is the important
role of the physical body plays for the totality of our being.
Without the tangible, responsive physical body, we could not enjoy the pleasures of the world.
Religious groups around the world also have varying concepts regarding the physical body. One that draws
attention is the varying idea from the Indian tradition.
Some showed outright rejection of the body, because they consider it as the source of desires and
attachments, while others give due respect and importance to the physical body, because they attribute it
as the main instrument for spiritual growth and self-realization.
Indian tradition also appraised growth and enlightenment as the whole-body event, which is only possible if
one has a pure and strong body.
Furthermore, the concept of the Middle path from the Buddhist tradition is vital in one’s attitude toward the
body.
They believed that the body deserves love and respect, so there should be neither full indulgence of one’s
desire nor extreme asceticism or self-denial.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PERCEPTION OF THE PHYSICAL SELF

1.Personal Factors
a. Introspection and self- reflection
Introspection – the process by which one observes and examines one’s internal state (mental and
emotional) after behaving in a certain way. (Hewstone)
Studies, however, show that introspection is limited because people are commonly motivated to keep
unwanted thoughts and experiences out of memory and consciousness.
b. Self – Perception Theory – Bem (1972) self-perception theory explains that since one’s internal state is
difficult to interpret, people can infer their inner states by observing their own behavior.
Self – Concept – is a cognitive representation of self-knowledge which includes the sum total of all beliefs
that people have about themselves.
It is a collection of all individual experiences involving one’s characteristics, social roles, values, goals and
fears. Thus, it pertains to all characteristics the person enumerates when asked to describe who he is.
Physical self–concept is the individual’s perception or description of his physical self, including his
physical appearance.
d. Personal identity – the concept of a person has about himself that develops over the years including
aspects of his life that he was born into like family, nationality, gender, physical traits, the choices he makes
(e.g. what he does for a living, who his friends are and what he believes in.

2. Social Factors
a. Attachment Process and Social Appraisal
According to Bowlby (1969), people learn about their value and lovability when they experiences how their
mothers or caregivers care for them and respond to their needs.
Caregiving that is consistent and appropriately responds to the infant’s needs promote positive self-
concept; whereas caregiving that is neglectful and unresponsive creates a negative self-concept
believing that they are not worthy and that others.
cannot be trusted. This is developed prior to achieving self-awareness.
b. Maintaining, Regulating and Expanding the Self in Interpersonal Relationships – The sense of self
is continuously shaped through ongoing interaction with others or with significant relationship partners.
They act as “private audiences” with whom people carry an internal dialogue. Oftentimes, however,
people are not aware that they are being influenced by these private audiences.
c.The Looking-glass Self Theory – The view of oneself comes from a compilation of personal qualities
and impressions of how others perceive the individual. In looking glass self, the self-image is shaped and
reflected from the social world. Other people’s reaction would serve as a mirror in which people see.
Themselves particularly the way in which they are perceived and judges by others. Later in life, people
internalize other people’s appraisal of them through more cognitively reflected processes.
Reflected Appraisal – are inferences regarding other’s appraisal of a person.
d. Social comparison – Hewstone et.al (2015) cited the work of Leon Festinger in 1954 introduced
another way of understanding oneself by comparing one’s traits, abilities or opinions to that of others.
SOCIAL COMPARISON – a process of comparing oneself with others in order to evaluate one’s own
abilities and opinions.

TYPES OF COMPARISON
Upward social comparison – happens when an individual compares himself to others who are better than
him.
Downward social comparison – happens when an individual compares himself to someone who is in a
worse situation than he is especially when he is feeling so low. This may make himself feel better knowing
that he is more fortunate than this person.
e. Social Identity Theory (Collective Identity) formulated by Tajfel and Turner in 1979 which provides a
framework about how people achieve understanding about themselves by being a member of their group.
People need positive social identity that is why they connect to a wider social network.

TAKING CARE OF OUR PHYSICAL BODY

The physical body has been considered as the “real home”, “temple”, or “vehicle”. It is the only one that we
have throughout our entire lives and is also the one most intimate to us.
Our physical body is our instrument so we can perform our daily tasks. It is through this body that we can
interact with other people, with other living organisms, and with the rest of our surroundings.
It is just vital that we take good care of every single structure that makes up our bodies. We have to make
sure that it can function well. When we take good care of it, we are not only referring to the external part,
but even the internal components of the body.
Self-care is the intentional, planned, and actual act of taking the time to attend to our basic physical,
mental, and emotional needs (Brzosko 2018). It is quality rest that we can offer to our bodies in order to
replenish the lost energy utilized in performing our daily activities. It is an act of love and kindness for
ourselves.
Self-care occurs in three levels: physical, mental, and emotional. Taking care of the physical body also
entails taking care of our mental and emotional lives. They should go hand in hand. We cannot be
physically fit and healthy, yet emotionally unstable and mentally disturbed.
We should be healthy in all the three aspects. In fact, health starts from within and it then manifests
outside. Our good health springs from the mind, which stimulates the heart, and the heart energizes the
physical body.

PHYSICAL SELF-CARE
This aspect of self-care is the simplest one and is very common nowadays. There are three basic aspects
of physical self-care: good nutrition, sufficient amount of recovery time (rest and sleep), and
necessary exercise.
Others might have other ways to care for the body depending on the specific need and preferences, like
breathing exercises, massages, long baths, saunas, physiotherapy, biking, hiking, skin care, and more.
Teens and adults nowadays are becoming fond of doing some special skin care sessions or they are using
special skin care products to improve the quality of their skin. Others, also have to change hairstyle from
time to time to follow the trend. Consequently, we have our own ways to take care of our physical bodies,
but let us make sure that they are really beneficial and they will not cause us to suffer unnecessary
problems later in life.

MENTAL SELF-CARE
Our thoughts can be confusing and complex sometimes. You were so happy for a while, and then a certain
memory popped up and your happy thoughts suddenly drifted.
The memory caused you to be anxious and become worried at something, and most of the time, it may be
unintentional and we cannot explain such phenomenon.
Mental self-care is a two-fold process, according to Brzosko (2018). The first step is taking time to
consistently break down what you are thinking and why you are thinking that, because the moment you
manage to notice your thoughts, they will not have the power to direct your life without you even noticing.
As we become conscious with our thinking, we can actually choose where to focus our thinking. We can
choose to center our thoughts to something positive. We can think of an idea, an activity, or place that
energizes us the most.
The second step is to cultivate those mental habits and thoughts that benefit us. Keep those thoughts that
improve our well-being.
It is not helpful if we will meditate on negative words, negative experiences, and negative people that we
have encountered. We are just wasting our precious time with those negative thoughts.

Moreover our relationship with others can also be improved if we keep in mind that it is actually better to
give something to others than to receive. As the golden rule teaches us, let us do to others what we
want others to do to us. If these thoughts will be engraved in our minds, our lives will be a lot better.

EMOTIONAL SELF-CARE
In his book, The Presence Process, Michael Brown stated that all emotions are essentially “energy in
motion”. They are not good nor bad. They are just energy (Brzosko 2018).
We have come up with standardized names for those emotions or energies I motion, such as fear, anger,
anxiety, sadness, happiness, excitement and thrill among others. We also classified them as “desired” for
the positive emotions and “unwanted” for the negative ones. Because we can feel or experience all these
kinds of emotions, it is unfair to be “right” or “wrong” based on the way we feel.
A very important step in dealing with our emotional self is to recognize the validity of our emotional state.
We will surely benefit from this initial step, because it is something that is already happening.
An attempt to hide or disregard the current emotional state will just bring additional tension.
It is, of course, easier to accept some feelings over others. Most of the time, it is easy for us to recognize
and embrace emotions like peace, love, excitement, happiness, gratitude and hope. However, it takes
more time and effort to accept fear, regret, sadness, anxiety, and the like.
After recognizing the emotion, we can either alter the emotional state or we do not.
On the other hand, the second option tells us that we can actually detach the mental interpretation from the
emotion itself.
Consequently, we integrate the emotions as a valid part of our experience, not being worse nor better
than others. With these, we will no longer seek some feelings over others. We simply believe that all
emotions have their root cause and that they are valid.
Sometimes, we just need to be cautious and mindful of these emotions, so that they will not cause
negative impact to our daily activities and to the way we interrelate with other people around us.
LESSON 3 SEXUAL SELF
Research says that the sex chromosomes of humans define the sex and their secondary characteristics.
From childhood, we are controlled by our genetic makeup. It influences the way we treat ourselves and
others.
Our society or the environment we live in also shapes ourselves. Some people’s innate sexuality has been
changed due to external factors.

UNDERSTANDING HUMAN SEXUALITY

Sexual selfhood is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself as a sexual individual. Human
sexuality is a topic that just like beauty is culturally diverse.
For the learner to be able to grasp it in its totality, he should be aware of the varied ways in which it can be
understood.

Human sexuality has been defined as the ways in which people experienced and expressed themselves
as sexual being, as expected by specific society. The study of human sexuality draws upon the scientific
expertise of some anthropologists, biologists, medical researchers, sociologists and psychologists who
attest that human sexuality reflects biological capabilities, psychological characteristics, and social
and cultural differences. In a way human sexuality connotes gender role typing.
Researches reveal that male and female generally do not differ in their gender roles, or the maleness
and femaleness. Their sexual behaviors are shaped by attitudes, cultural traditions and beliefs.
Nevertheless, it is evident that males have stronger sex drives than females, although their differences are
based on society’s discouragement on females’ sexuality rather than on male and female differences.
It is evident that males think about sex more than the females, not only due to the release of androgens in
the testes but more than the hormones that motivate and produce sexual behavior. They maybe object,
sight, smells or sound and other stimuli that may lead to sexual excitement.
Sex and sex related behavior are influenced by social expectation, attitudes, beliefs and biological
knowledge. The generation in today’s society knows that sexual behavior has diverse form. What was seen
as an unusual or unnatural and lewd are likely accepted.
At the start of puberty, changes that happen in the bodies of young males and females are both secondary
and primary sexual changes. Secondary sexual changes are physical changes that distinguish the males
from females.
 Secondary Sex Characteristics
Male Female
Voice becomes much lower (breaks) Breasts enlarge
Hair growth on chest, face, underarms, arms, legs Hair growth under arms and pubic area
and pubic area
Increase in muscle size Hip widens
Skin becomes oily and pores enlarge Skin becomes oily and pores enlarge

On the other hand. the primary sexual changes that happen during the course of puberty prepare the
male and females body for procreation.
These involve changes in the reproductive organs for these parts to attain functional maturity.
Female's ovaries begin producing egg cells (ova) and the male's testicles begin producing live sperm cells
(spermatozoa).

Primary Sex Characteristics

Male Female
Testes ovaries
Penis Fallopian tubes
Scrotum Uterus
Seminal vesicles and prostate glands Vagina

The Erogenous Zones

Erogenous Zones are areas of the body that are particularly responsive to tactile pleasurable parts.
Erogenous zones maybe primary erogenous zones and secondary erogenous zones.
Primary erogenous zones pertain to areas that contain thick concentration of nerve ending (genitals,
buttocks, anus, nipples, inner surface of the thighs, armpits, navel, neck, ears, lips, tongue and entire oral
cavities.
Secondary erogenous zones include all other regions of the body. For instance, if one’s lover tenderly
kissed and stroked the upper back of his partner during sexual interplay, that area can be transformed to an
erogenous zone because they are touched in a context of sexual intimacies (Crooks & Baur, 2014).

Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both the
primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and the secondary characteristics, such as height and
muscularity (Diamond 2002). Sex therefore, defined by the reproductive organs, including the cellular
components, the chromosomes, and the hormones. There are three sex variations according to Western
Australian AIDS Council (2020):
1. Male is a person with the penis or the male reproductive organ, with XY chromosomes in his cells and
the body is capable of producing high levels of testosterone.
2. Female is a person with vagina or the male reproductive organ, with XX chromosomes and is capable of
producing high levels of estrogen.
3. Intersex is a person born with the sexual anatomy or chromosomes that do not fit the traditional
definition of male or female. The person has the combination of reproductive sex organs, including internal
sex organs, chromosomes and hormones.
According to Diamond (2002), gender refers to social or cultural roles played by male or female in the
society. Gender identity is the extent to which one identifies as being either masculine or feminine, or how
someone feels on the inside (WAAC 2020).
Gender expression describes how someone prefers to express his/her gender to the world. For instance,
we have been accustomed to associating color pink to girls and blue for boys; from childhood, we give dolls
for baby girls, while trucks or plastic guns for baby boys. Men are sporty, while women are encouraged to
use makeup, do hairstyle, and paint their nails.

Gender Variations (WAAC 2020)

1. Cisgender – a person identifying himself or herself with the sex assigned to them at birth. Ex. A person
who was assigned as a male at birth and identifies as male or vice versa.
2. Transgender – gender identity does not match the sex that they were assigned at birth. Ex. A person
who was assigned as a male at birth, but identifies as female, or vice versa.
3. Gender fluid – a person whose gender is not fixed and/or shifts depending on the situation. These
people do not feel the need to act according to the sex that they were assigned at birth and the associated
traditional social roles.
Some transgender people opt to undergo surgery or take hormones in order to align their physical body
with what they identify with themselves. But not all transgender need to do such acts.
Being transgender does not depend on the physical appearance or medical procedures. It may lie from
within the person’s emotions and how he or she identifies himself or herself.
Nowadays, there is an increasing number of individuals who identifies themselves as gender fluid. Some
claim that it is due to influence from peers, trauma from past experiences, and other environmental factors.
Sexuality pertains to the part of a person expressed through sexual activities and relationships. It is often
represented through one’s feelings, sexual identity , and behaviors.
Sexual identity is how a person chooses to describe or label his/her sexuality. There are many labels a
person can choose: heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, asexual, hypersexual, pansexual, and
questioning among others.
Heterosexual – a person who is attracted to the people of opposite sex.
Homosexual – a person attracted to the people of the same sex.
Bisexual – a person who is attracted to both genders (male and female)
Asexual – a person having no sexual attraction (they do not experience sexual drives or attraction)
Hypersexual - persons with an excessive interest in sex to the point where it can cause problems in one's
life.
Pansexual – a person’s attraction to multiple genders. Some may describe their attraction based on
chemistry rather than gender, but everyone is different.
Questioning – some people who may be unsure about their sexuality and/or are exploring it.
Nowadays, sexuality is becoming more confusing for some. The list of sexuality labels expands; there are
more labels being added to the traditional qualification. There are three common aspects used to describe
sexuality (WAAC 2020):
1. feelings and fantasies – these may include the center of the affection or the person we are attracted to
and we are intimately connected with.
2. behaviors – expressed through any form of sexual contact as well as flirting.
3. identity – that corresponds to the label or description of someone’s sexuality.

Queer Theory
Queer Theory is a perspective that questions the manner in which we have been thought to think about
sexual orientation. The proponents of the theory disagree with the idea of labeling and they embrace the
term “queer” to describe their group. They do not adhere to the idea of dominant gender schema and the
classification of sexual orientations into homosexual and heterosexual. They emphasize the need for a
more flexible and fluid conceptualizations of sexuality, one that will permit freedom, negotiation, and
change (Little and McGivern 2020).
Queer theorist Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick pointed out dozens of other ways in which people’s sexualities
were different (Little and McGivern 2020). According to Sedgwick, even identical genital acts mean very
different things to different people. Moreover, some people, whether homosexual, heterosexual, or
bisexual, experience their sexuality as deeply embedded in the matrix of gender meanings and gender
differentials, while others of each sexuality may not be expressing them in the same manner.
People who belong to the queer group desires for more flexible way of expressing their sexuality. They
want more freedom, yet a more inclusive environment where they could thrive in.
Basic Sexual Behavior
Masturbation or Solitary Sex
Years ago some physicians reported that masturbation would lead to a variety of physical and mental
disorders or insanity. Masturbation is sexual satisfaction. Men and women typically start to masturbate for
the first time at different ages ranging from 5-21 years with the highest peak at 9-13 years for males and
12-16 years for females (Feldman, 2014).
Male masturbation is common in the early teens and then slow down, whereas female, begin to masturbate
early with maximum frequency later. Masturbation or solitary sex is more often engaged to those who do
not have sexual outlet, an idea that has no relation to reality. It was reported that married men age 20-40
usually masturbated 24 times a year where as married women of the same age had it 10 times a year
(Feldman, 2016).
In-spite of the common practice of masturbation, attitude toward masturbation are still negative. Some who
practice this activity experience a feeling of guilt or consider themselves perverse.
However, despite negative attitudes, most experts on sex look at masturbation as a healthy, legitimate and
harmless sexual activity. In addition, masturbation is viewed as a means of knowing about one’s own
sexuality and a way of discovering changes in one’s own body such as the occurrence of precancerous
lump.
2. Heterosexuality
Some people believe that the first time they experience sexual act they have already reached significance
in their lives. Heterosexuality, an attraction and behavior toward the other sex is far more than male and
female sexual act, kissing, petting, caressing, necking and massaging, and other forms of sex play are
parts of heterosexual behavior.
3. Premarital Sex
Before, premarital sex particularly for women was a major taboo, generally in the Filipino values. Traditional
women were prohibited by society that the “nice girls” never do it. Men were more or less allowed to
engage in premarital sex but they were advised to marry “virgins”. The idea that premarital sex is allowed
for the males but not permitted for the females is termed double standard.
In the 1960s, there was a dramatic change in he view of premarital sex. There seems a convergence of
males and females attitudes and behavior toward premarital sex, but this did not end to the idea of double
standard. However, to the younger generations the double standard had been replaced by “permissiveness
with affection”. According to (De Gaton et.,al., 1996 & Hyde, 2006) as quoted by Feldman (2014),
premarital sex is permissible to both males and females who have long-termed commitment or loving
relationship.
4. Marital Sex
Sex in marriage is the most standard and acceptable sexual behavior, and generally the gauge of wedded
bliss. However, there are many various dimensions of how to measure the marital happiness; to some
frequency of sexual act are the common standards. As to how often sexual act be done, depends on
particular couples. There are those who do it regularly, others have it few times a month, some have it 2-3
times a week. However, with increasing age and length of marriage, the frequency of sexual act decreases.
Yet it still continues into late adulthood and majority of these people engage in sexual act at least 1 or 2
times a month but this is of high quality.
4. Extramarital Sex
There are some researches that reveal about extramarital sex. Extramarital sex is a practice between a
married person and someone who is not his/her spouse. This was said to be widely practiced although not
exactly the reality because generally there is still a high percentage of married couples who are faithful to
their spouses and there is a high degree of disapproval to this extramarital sex.

Sexually Transmitted infections (STIs)

Sexually transmitted infections are diseases that are contracted primarily through sexual contact with an
infected individual.
Many STIs—including syphilis, hepatitis B, HIV, chlamydia, gonorrhoea, herpes, and HPV—can also be
transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy and childbirth.
It is an increasing health Problem.

KEY FACTS
• More than 1 million sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are acquired every day worldwide.
•Each year, there are an estimated 376 million new
infections with 1 of 4 STIs: chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis and trichomoniasis.
•More than 500 million people are estimated to have genital infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV).
•More than 290 million women have a human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.
•The majority of STIs have no symptoms or only mild symptoms that may not be recognized as an STI.
•STIs such as HSV type 2 and syphilis can increase the risk of HIV acquisition.
•988 000 pregnant women were infected with syphilis in 2016, resulting in over 350 000 adverse birth
outcomes including 200 000 stillbirths and newborn deaths.
•In some cases, STIs can have serious reproductive health consequences beyond the immediate impact of
the infection itself (e.g., infertility or mother-to-child transmission)
•The Gonococcal Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Programme has shown high rates of quinolone
resistance, increasing azithromycin resistance and emerging resistance to extended-spectrum
cephalosporins. Drug resistance, especially for gonorrhoea, is a major threat to reducing the impact of STIs
worldwide.
More than 30 different bacteria, viruses and parasites are known to be transmitted through sexual contact.
Eight of these pathogens are linked to the greatest incidence of sexually transmitted disease. Of these 8
infections, 4 are currently curable: syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia and trichomoniasis. The other 4 are viral
infections which are incurable: hepatitis B, herpes simplex virus (HSV or herpes), HIV, and human
papillomavirus (HPV). Symptoms or disease due to the incurable viral infections can be reduced or
modified through treatment.

The following are some examples of STIs:

1.HIV/AIDS. HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus while AIDS stands for acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome
• HIV is a virus while AIDS is a condition or syndrome.
• HIV can lead to infections that attack and destroy the CD4 (Tcell) of the immune system which is the
body's natural defense against such illnesses as tuberculosis, pneumonia and cancer.
• HIV without treatment can lead to AIDS but not all cases of HIV develop AIDS.
• Only untreated HIV may lead to AIDS.
• Presently, there is no effective cure for HIV. But the condition can be controlled with proper medical care.
• The antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a combination of medications that are used to prevent HIV from
replicating to protect the body against the virus and infection.
• However, ART is not a cure. It helps those with HIV positive to live longer and happier and lowers the risk
of advancing the condition into AIDS.
• AIDS can be diagnosed by the number of CD4 cell count. A count of less than 200 cells/mm3 in the blood
indicates AIDS, whereas a typical, healthy individual has around 500-1,600 cells/mm3 in a blood sample.
When someone dies of AIDS, it is typically because they got sick with another type of disease or infection.
The immune system is not strong enough to fight the infection
• According to a news article (news.abs-cbn.com) posted August 1, 2017, the Philippines has the highest
HIV infection growth in Asia-Pacific as reported by the health ministry and the United Nation.
• From January to March 2020, there were 2,818 newly confirmed HIV-positive individuals reported to the
HIV/AIDS & ART Registry of the Philippines (HARP). Seventeen percent (473) had clinical manifestations
of advanced HIV infection at the time of testing.
• Ninety-four percent (2,658) of the newly diagnosed were male. The median age was 28 years old (age
range: 1-78 years old). Almost half of the cases (48%), 1,359) were 25-34 years old and 30% (834) were
15-24 years old at the time of diagnosis.
• Almost a third (30%, 852) were from the National Capital Region (NCR). Region 4A (18%, 517), Region 3
(11%, 304), Region 7 (8%, 212), and Region 6 (7%, 201) comprised the top five regions with the most
number of newly diagnosed cases for this reporting period, together accounting for 74% of the total cases
• Sexual contact remained as the predominant mode of transmission (98%, 2,749). Among the newly
diagnosed, 63% (1,768) reported transmission through male to male sex, 22% (612) through males who
have sex with both males and females, and 13% (369) were through male tofemale sex. Other modes of
transmission were sharing of infected needles (1%, 32) and mother-to-child transmission (<1%, 6). Thirty-
one cases (1%) had no data on mode of transmission.
• Among the newly diagnosed females this reporting period, 35 were pregnant at the time of diagnosis.
Eleven cases were from NCR, six cases from Region 4A; five cases from Region 3; four cases from Region
7; two cases each from Regions 12 and 5; and one case each from Regions 1, 2, 6, 8 and 10.

2. Genital Herpes. This is a sexually transmitted infection- caused by a large family of viruses of different
strains. These strains produce other nonsexually transmitted diseases such as chicken pox and
mononucleosis.
3. Genital Warts. This is an STI caused by the human papillomavirus; genital warts are very contagious
and are the most commonly acquired STI in the United States in the 15 to 24 year old age group.
4. Gonorrhea. This is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae
which thrives in the moist mucous membranes linings of the mouth, throat, vagina, cervix, urethra, and the
anal tract.
• Symptoms for males are discharge from the penis and burning sensations during urination.
• For females, sometimes irritating vaginal discharge.
• Complication for males may include prostate, bladder and kidney problems as well as sterility.
• For females, it may lead to infertility.
5. Syphilis. This is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, a
spirochete. If left untreated, syphilis may progress through four phases:
• Primary (chancre sores appear),
• Secondary (general skin rashes occur),
• latent (a period that can last for several years with no overt symptoms), and
• tertiary (cardiovascular disease, blindness, paralysis, skin ulcers, liver damage, mental problem and even
death may occur)
6. Chlamydia. This is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections, named for Chlamydia
trachomatis, an organism that spreads through sexual contact and infects the genital organs of both sexes.
• Many females with chlamydia are asymptomatic.
• Although they can occur without sexual contact, urinary tract or bladder infection and vaginal yeast
infection are common among sexually active females.
METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION (ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL)
• In 1930 the first mainstream Christian sect—the Angelican Church—officially permitted certain forms of
birth control.
• Nowadays, some religions, including the Roman Catholic Church, a few Protestant denominations, and
many Hindus condemn the use of contraception.
• Contraceptives are medicines and other devices that are used to prevent unwanted pregnancy.
1. Hormonal method of contraception (prevents the release of an egg or ovulation)
a. Oral contraceptives (Pills) – These are daily oral contraceptives. Some contain estrogen and
progestogen; others are progestin only and is over 99% effective if used according to instructions.
b. The patch - it is a small patch you stick on to the skin that releases estrogen and progestogen. It stops
ovulation and is over 99 percent effective if used according to instructions.
c. The ring - The contraceptive vaginal ring is a small plastic ring a woman inserts into her vagina every
month and releases hormones to stop ovulation. It is over 99 per cent effective if used appropriately based
on the instructions.
d. Implants - The contraceptive implant is a small flexible rod that is place under the skin of the upper arm
by a health professional and releases progestogen to stop ovulation.
e. Injectable - The contraceptive injection which is a longacting reversible contraception does not depend
on you taking it daily and is more than 99 percent effective.
2. Barrier methods (methods that physically or chemically block the sperm from reaching an egg and
provide a barrier between direct skin to skin contacts)
a) Diaphragm - It is a soft dome made of latex or silicone and is used with spermicide. It is put into the
vagina to cover the cervix and is 92 to 96 per cent effective when used correctly.
b) Cervical Caps - These are similar to the diaphragm, though they are generally always made of silicone.
They are put into the vagina to cover the cervix and are 92 to 96 percent effective when used correctly.
c. Male and Female Condoms or spermicides — Male condom is made up of thin latex put over the
penis to stop the sperm from entering vagina. It is 98% effective when used exactly according to
instructions. The female condom is made of thin polyurethane that loosely lines the vagina and stops sperm
from entering. It is 95% effective if properly used.
3.Behavioral Methods
a. Rhythm or Calendar Method — It is a way to determine a woman’s most fertile and infertile times by
charting the menstrual cycle. It is also known as natural family planning or fertility awareness.
b. Abstinence or celibacy — It refer to the avoidance of sexual intercourse.
c. Outercourse — It is a sexual activity that does not include the insertion of the penis into the vagina.
d. Withdrawal (Latin — coitus interruptus) — It happens when a man removes his penis from the vagina
and ejaculates outside of the woman's body.
4. Sterilization (procedures that make an individual permanently incapable of conceiving or fertilizing a
partner)
a. Tubal ligation I sterilization —It is the surgery for woman in which fallopian tubes are tied to prevent
eggs from travelling to the uterus so a woman cannot get pregnant
b. Vasectomy — It is an operation in which the surgeon makes a small cut in the upper part of the scrotum
then ties or blocks the vas deferens. Men can still have orgasm or ejaculation after the operation.
5. Intrauterine Device (IUD) - It is a small device that is placed in the uterus by a doctor to prevent
pregnancy.
6. Emergency Contraception (EC) - It is an measure that protects against pregnancy after unprotected
sex has already occurred. It could be through IUD or higher dosage of pills (Rosenthal, 2013)