CHAPTER 12

SOCIAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION IN A GLOBAL WORLD

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. differentiate the concepts of social issue and social problem
2. identify emerging social problems in a global world and determine their
causes.
3. Analyze the effects of these social problems and issues to globalization

A social problem is any condition or behavior that has negative consequences

for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior
that needs to be addressed.

A social issue is a problem that influences many citizens within a society. It is a

common problem in present-day society and one that many people strive to solve. It is
often the consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's control. Social issues
are the source of a conflicting opinion on the grounds of what is perceived as morally
correct or incorrect

Four factors have been outlined that seem to characterize a social issue or
problem. These include:

> The public must recognize the situation as a problem.

>The situation is against the general values accepted by the society.

>A large segment of the population recognizes the problem as a valid concern.

>The problem can be rectified or alleviated through the joint action of citizens and/or
community resources.

12 Common Social Problems and Issues in Globalization

12.1 Global Health Issues including HIV and AIDS

In recent years, cities around the world are seriously disturbed with
communicable health risks such as but not limited to Ebola fever, SARS, AH1N1, and
many others. Just recently added to this is the spread of the New Corona Virus (NCOV2)
which became a Pandemic that locked down almost all countries all over the world.
State monitoring particularly on returning nationals from abroad was found to be
effective mechanism to prevent the spread of such viruses. But then in the process of
Globalization as people move about so as these health threat move also thus creating
Health problems and social issues among many countries.

The World Health Organization has released a list of 10 threats to global health in
2019. They include:

 Air pollution and climate change

 Noncommunicable diseases
 Threat of a global influenza pandemic
 Fragile and vulnerable settings, such as regions affected by drought and conflict
 Antimicrobial resistance
 Ebola and high-threat pathogens
 Weak primary care
 Vaccine hesitancy
 Dengue
 HIV/AIDS

This year the Novel Corona Virus (NCOV 2) is added to the above threats because it
has evolved already into a worldwide pandemic and continue to wreak havoc not only on
health infrastructures but on Economic infrastructures as well because of lock downs
imposed by countries in order to contain its spread.

12.1.1 WHAT IS HIV?

HIV stands for HUMAN IMMUNODEFFICIENCY VIRUS is a virus that attacks

cells that help the body fight infection, making a person more vulnerable to other
infections and diseases. Without treatment, HIV can gradually destroy the immune
system and advance to AIDS.

AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is the most

advanced stage of HIV infection.

The spread of HIV from person to person is called HIV transmission. HIV is

spread only in certain body fluids from a person who has HIV. These body fluids
include:Blood,Semen, Pre-seminal fluid,Vaginal fluids,Rectal fluids, and Breast milk.

In the United States, HIV is spread mainly by having anal or vaginal sex with
someone who has HIV without using a condom or taking medicines to prevent or treat
HIV

Sharing injection drug equipment (works), such as needles, with someone who
has HIV, The spread of HIV from a woman with HIV to her child during pregnancy,
childbirth, or breastfeeding is called mother-to-child transmission of HIV.

On the other hand, you can’t get HIV by shaking hands or hugging a person who
has HIV.You also can’t get HIV from contact with objects such as dishes, toilet seats, or
doorknobs used by a person with HIV. HIV is not spread through the air or in water or by
mosquitoes, ticks, or other blood-sucking insects.

Within 2 to 4 weeks after infection with HIV, some people may have flu-like
symptoms, such as fever, chills, or rash. The symptoms may last for a few days to
several weeks. During this earliest stage of HIV infection, the virus multiplies rapidly.

After the initial stage of infection, HIV continues to multiply but at very low levels.
More severe symptoms of HIV infection, such as signs of opportunistic infections,
generally don’t appear for many years.

A person can reduce the risk of being infected with the following guidelines:

>Use condoms correctly every time you have sex

>Limit your number of sexual partners

>Never share injection drug equipment.

>HIV medicines, given to women with HIV during pregnancy and childbirth and to their
babies after birth, reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV

Infection with HIV/AIDS leads to numerous bodily, mental and social issues that
affect the individual and impacts on their families and communities at large. The impact
of the HIV treatment is further aggravated by other factors such as worry about
employment, sexuality, the prospects of relationships, and the social reactions of other
community members. Another impact of HIV is the stigma and discrimination against
persons living with HIV/AIDS. Apart from having to endure treatment with severe side-
effects, they constantly have to cope with rejection and social discrimination.
(https://nursinganswers.net)

Video Link:

Positive/Negative: HIV & AIDS in the Philippines

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQmysmzZvVw
12.2 Sex and Gender Discrimination

The distinction between sex and gender differentiates a person's biological

sex (the anatomy of an individual's reproductive system, and secondary sex
characteristics) from that person's gender, which can refer to either social roles based on
the sex of the person (gender role) or personal identification of one's own gender based
on an internal awareness.

Sex often refers to what doctors (and society) assign a person at birth based on
their genitals. So the division become binary referring to being Male or Female. While
sex is often based on biology, gender is a social construct.

According to the World Health organization, Gender as a social construction

includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy,
as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from
society to society and can change over time. Because there are more than two genders,
it therefore not binary but instead it is a spectrum. Below are the most popular gender
description in this spectrum.

Gender or sex as classification is hierarchical and produces inequalities that

intersect with other social and economic inequalities. Gender-based discrimination
intersects with other factors of discrimination, such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
disability, age, geographic location, gender identity and sexual orientation, among
others.

Gender or sex discrimination occurs when a person is subjected to different or

unequal treatment ("discrimination") in any number of situations, when that treatment is
based on the person's gender. 

Sex discrimination - refers to discrimination based on the biological differences

between male and female

Gender discrimination - refers to discrimination based on social behavior such as

nonconformance of gender roles including sexual orientation and gender identity
discrimination

Gender and sex discrimination can take place in many different settings, but
typically occurs most often in the following situations:

a. Workplace- Gender discrimination may be direct or indirect. Direct gender

discrimination is when an employee is treating unfavourably because of
their gender. Indirect gender discrimination can occur if employers or
managers hold assumptions about what sort of work women and men are
capable, or not capable, of doing.
b. Education - When a child is treated less favourably on the grounds of
gender, sexual orientation. Sometimes they are not given equal
opportunity and treatment because of the sex or gender. In some regions,
boys’ educational opportunities are limited by gender roles that force
them to work  rather than attend school. These financial responsibilities
are often increased in boys’ adolescent years, making it difficult for them
to complete secondary school in some regions. However, in many parts
of the world, girls are most often the victims of gender discrimination as
they pursue an education.
c. Household – when male children are given more opportunities than their
sisters. Sometimes this takes the form of giving more household chores
to female children while those having other genders such as gays or
lesbians are looked down upon or totally become unaccepted.

Gender stereotypes is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or

characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by
women and men. A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s
capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and make
choices about their lives.

Gender equality is a human right, but our world faces a persistent gap in access
to opportunities and decision-making power for women and men.
 Globally, women have fewer opportunities for economic participation than men,
less access to basic and higher education, greater health and safety risks, and less
political representation.

Guaranteeing the rights of women and giving them opportunities to reach their
full potential is critical not only for attaining gender equality, but also for meeting a wide
range of international development goals. Empowered women and girls contribute to the
health and productivity of their families, communities, and countries, creating a ripple
effect that benefits everyone.

Video Link:

Gender Stratification: Crash Course Sociology #32

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yb1_4FPtzrI

12. 3 Climate Change

Weather, state of the atmosphere at a particular place during a short period of

time. It involves such atmospheric phenomena as temperature, humidity, precipitation
(type and amount), air pressure, wind, and cloud cover.

Climate describes the average weather of a particular part of the world at

different times of the year.

Climate change is the long-term shift in average weather patterns across the
world. Since the mid-1800s, humans have contributed to the release of carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases into the air. This causes global temperatures to rise,
resulting in long-term changes to the climate. (Met College, 2016)

12.3.1 What are the causes?

a. SOLAR VARIABILITY- The luminosity, or brightness, of the Sun has been

increasing steadily since its formation. This phenomenon is important to Earth’s
climate, because the Sun provides the energy to drive atmospheric circulation
and constitutes the input for Earth’s heat budget. Low solar luminosity during
Precambrian time underlies the faint young Sun paradox, described in the
section Climates of early Earth.
b. HUMAN ACTIVITIES- Recognition of global climate change as an environmental
issue has drawn attention to the climatic impact of human activities. Most of this
 attention has focused on carbon dioxide emission via fossil-fuel combustion and
deforestation. Human activities also yield releases of other greenhouse gases,
such as methane (from rice cultivation, livestock, landfills, and other sources) and
chlorofluorocarbons (from industrial sources). There is little doubt among
climatologists that these greenhouse gases affect the radiation budget of Earth;
the nature and magnitude of the climatic response are a subject of intense
research activity.
c. GREENHOUSE GASES- It is a gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect by
absorbing infrared radiation, e.g., carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons. When
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide build in the atmosphere, they act like
a blanket around the earth. When sunlight (ultraviolet radiation) hits this blanket,
it passes straight through and continues until it reaches the surface of the planet.

12.3. 2 Effects of Climate Change

Global climate change has already had observable effects on the environment.
Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier, plant and
animal ranges have shifted and trees are flowering sooner.
12.3.3 Possible Solutions

United Nations legal instruments

A. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCC)

-"International environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as
the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992."
- It has no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual
countries.No enforcement mechanism.
-The treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international
treaties (called "protocols") that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases.

B. Kyoto Protocol
-Is an international agreement that called for industrialized nations to
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
-"Kyoto" because it was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when
greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate.

C. Paris Agreement
“At COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015, Parties to the UNFCCC
reached a landmark agreement to combat climate change and to accelerate and
intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon
future.”
“The Paris Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global response
to the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century
well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to
limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Additionally,
the agreement aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of
climate change, and at making finance flows consistent with a low GHG
emissions and climate-resilient pathway. To reach these ambitious goals,
appropriate mobilization and provision of financial resources, a new technology
framework and enhanced capacity-building is to be put in place, thus supporting
action by developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with
their own national objectives. The Agreement also provides for an enhanced
transparency framework for action and support.” (https://unfccc.int)
 Video Link:
What is Climate Change? | Start Here
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dcBXmj1nMTQ&t=41s

CHAPTER 13

GLOBAL CITIES

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define and enumerate the concept and indicators of urbanization.
2. Trace the development of the cities as well as the process and pacing of
urbanization.
3. Differentiate world class cities, multicultural cities, and cities of the
developing world.

13.1 Concept of Urbanization

Urbanization is defines as the process of gradual shift from agricultural society to

the industrial society with a wide access toinformation, government and other
institutions, means of transportation, and other manifestations of a city or urban life.
Generally however, it means the process or rate of concentration or migration of a
population in a particular area.

According to the World Cities Report (2016), more than half of the world’s
population today resides in urban areas. Expectedly, this is the result of the continuing
industrialization, as more and more segment of the population migrates to urban areas
for non-agricultural sources of living. Cities create wealth, generate employment and
drive human progress by harnessing the forces of agglomeration and inductrialization.
(Farooq, 2013).
 Although only 48 percent of its areas are urbanized, Asia has by far the highest
number of people living in urban areas. This is perhaps expected considering that Asia
is the home of 2.11 billion population. Following Asia are Europe, Africa and Latin
America.

Because of the unprecedented increase in urban growth rate, large and mega
cities subsequently emerged. Large cities are those with 5 to 10 million inhabitants while
megacities are those with more than 10 million inhabitants.

13.2 Indicators of Urbanization

a. Continuing industrialization – By industrialization, it means the proliferation of

industries that are basically non-agricultural in nature, but surely the expansion of
establishment aimed at increasing services for agricultural and non agricultural
production.
b. Expanded employment opportunity – This means employment opportunities bot
in formal and informal sectors. Particularly cities are responsible for generating
new private sector jobs. According to World Cities Report (2018:33), “the 750
cities in the world created 87.7 million private sector jobs, or 58 percent of all new
private sector jobs in 129 countries.” This is between 2006 to 2012.
c. Access to information and communication technology – The fact-paced
environment in the cities of highly urbanized areas is usually driven by high
powered technology to hasten production. Since the goal is mass production,
technology is obviously an important tool to meet the need of industries and the
mass of people.
d. Better infrastructure facilities –In an effort to provide efficient social services to
urban dwellers , and in order to boost economic production, infrastructure
improvement is a must in the urban environement.

13.3 City Dwellers

Sociologist Herbert Gans as quoted by Ullman (2002:2) identified Five types of

people who lives in the city. The first three types live in the city by choice, finding in it a
valued sense of community.The last two have little choice about where they live.

a. Cosmopolites –these are the students, intellectuals, professionals, artists and

entertainers. They have been drawn to the city because of its conveniences and
cultural benefits.
b. Singles – young unmarried people who come to the cities seeing jobs and
entertainment. Businesses and services such as singes bar, single apartment
complexes, high rise condominiums cater to their needs.
c. Ethnic villagers – United by race ethnicity and social class, these people live in a
tightly knit neighborhoods that resemble villages in a small town. Moving within
 close circle of family and friends, the ethnic villagers try to isolate themselves
from what they view as the harmful effects of the city life.
d. Deprived- They live in blighted neighborhoods more of like an urban jungles than
urban villages. Consisting of the very poor, they represent the bottom of society
in terms of income, education, social status, and work skills.
e. Trapped – they consist of people who could not afford to move when their
neighborhood is invaded by other migrant groups.

13.4 Development of Cities

“Why did cities form in the first place? There is insufficient evidence to assert
what conditions gave rise to the first cities, but some theorists have speculated on what
they consider pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that could explain the rise of cities.
Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for cities, which help preserve surplus
production and create economies of scale. The conventional view holds that cities first
formed after the Neolithic Revolution, with the spread of agriculture. The advent of
farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and settle near
others who lived by agricultural production. Agriculture yielded more food, which made
denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. Farming led
to dense, settled populations, and food surpluses that required storage and could
facilitate trade. These conditions seem to be important prerequisites for city life. Many
theorists hypothesize that agriculture preceded the development of cities and led to their
growth.

A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities for the
formation of a successful city. A good environment includes clean water and a favorable
climate for growing crops and agriculture. A strong sense of social organization helps a
newly formed city work together in times of need, and it allows people to develop various
functions to assist in the future development of the city (for example, farmer or
merchant). Without these two common features, as well as advanced agricultural
technology, a newly formed city is not likely to succeed.

Cities may have held other advantages, too. For example, cities reduced
transport costs for goods, people, and ideas by bringing them all together in one spot. By
reducing these transaction costs, cities contributed to worker productivity. Finally, cities
likely performed the essential function of providing protection for people and the valuable
things they were beginning to accumulate. Some theorists hypothesize that people may
have come together to form cities as a form of protection against marauding barbarian
armies”. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

13.5 The Process of Urbanization

Urbanization is the process of a population shift from rural areas to cities. During
the last century, global populations have urbanized rapidly:
 13% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1900

29% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1950

One projection suggests that, by 2030, the proportion of people living in cities
may reach 60%.

Urbanization tends to correlate positively with industrialization. With the promise

of greater employment opportunities that come from industrialization, people from rural
areas will go to cities in pursuit of greater economic rewards.

Another term for urbanization is “rural flight. ” In modern times, this flight often
occurs in a region following the industrialization of agriculture—when fewer people are
needed to bring the same amount of agricultural output to market—and related
agricultural services and industries are consolidated. These factors negatively affect the
economy of small- and middle-sized farms and strongly reduce the size of the rural labor
market. Rural flight is exacerbated when the population decline leads to the loss of rural
services (such as business enterprises and schools), which leads to greater loss of
population as people leave to seek those features.

As more and more people leave villages and farms to live in cities, urban growth
results. The rapid growth of cities like Chicago in the late nineteenth century and
Mumbai a century later can be attributed largely to rural-urban migration. This kind of
growth is especially commonplace in developing countries.

Urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate efforts to reduce time
and expense in commuting, while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing,
entertainment, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take
advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. Due
to their high populations, urban areas can also have more diverse social communities
than rural areas, allowing others to find people like them.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

Some cities have grown so large and have such influence over a region that the
termy “city” is no longer adequate to describe them. The term metropolis is used
instead. This term refers to a central city surrounded by smaller cities and suburbs.

Another consequence of urbanization is the convergence of people with diverse

cultural background. Sociologists most often call it multi-culturalism or cultural pluralism,
which pertains to a situation where various ethnic groups converged in amixed ethnic
community area resulting to the existence of multi cultural traditions, these are called
Multi cultural cities.

Challenges and Issues in urbanization

a. Growth of Slums
b. Provision of adequate basic services and infrastructures

c. Climate change

d. Increasing urban divide between the rich and the poor

13.5 The Global City

A global city or world city sometimes called Alpha cities, are a concept which
postulates that globalization can be broken down in terms of strategic geographic locales
that see global processes being created, facilitated and enacted. The most complex of
these entities is the "global city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and
tangible effect on global affairs through more than just socio-economic means, with
influence in terms of culture, or politics. The terminology of "global city", as opposed to
megacity, is thought to have been first coined by Saskia Sassen in reference to London,
New York and Tokyo in her 1991 work The Global City.( https://www.cs.mcgill.ca)

It has been argued that global cities are those sharing the following characteristics:
(https://www.cs.mcgill.ca)

International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognised without the need for a
political subdivision. For example. although there are numerous cities and other political
entities with the name Paris or variations on it, one would say "Paris", not "Paris,
France".

Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs; for
example, New York City is home to the United Nations headquarters complex and
consequently contains a vast majority of the permanent missions to the UN.

A fairly large population (the centre of a metropolitan area with a population of at least
one million, typically several million).

A major international airport (for example, London Heathrow Airport) that serves as an
established hub for several international airlines.

An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large

mass transit network offering multiple modes of transportation ( rapid transit, light rail,
regional rail, ferry, or bus).

In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a Chinatown, a

Little Italy, or other immigrant communities). In other parts of the world, cities which
attract large foreign businesses and related expatriate communities; for example,
Singapore, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Moscow.
 International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters (especially
conglomerates), and stock exchanges (for example the London Stock Exchange, the
New York Stock Exchange or the Tokyo Stock Exchange) that have influence over the
world economy.

An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-national

corporations rely, such as fiberoptics, Wi-Fi networks, cellular phone services, and other
high-speed lines of communications.

World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.

A lively cultural scene, including film festivals (for example the Toronto International
Film Festival), premieres, a thriving music or theatre scene (for example, West End
theatre and Broadway); an orchestra, an opera company, art galleries, and street
performers.

Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach, such as the
BBC, Associated Press, Reuters, The New York Times, The Times, or Agence France-
Presse.

A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams in major
league sports, and the ability and historical experience to host international sporting
events such as the Olympic Games, Football World Cup, or Grand Slam tennis events.

To some, London, New York City, Paris, and Tokyo have been traditionally considered
the 'big four' world cities – not coincidentally, they also serve as symbols of global
capitalism. However, many people have their own personal lists, and any two lists are
likely to differ based on cultural background, values, and experience.

In certain countries, the rise of suburbia and the ongoing migration of manufacturing jobs
to these countries has led to significant urban decay. Therefore, to boost urban
regeneration, tourism, and revenue, the goal of building a "world-class" city has recently
become an obsession with the governments of some mid-size cities and their
constituents.

The phenomenon of world-city building has also been observed in Buenos Aires,
Santiago, Frankfurt, Montréal, Sydney, Mexico City and Toronto: each of these cities has
emerged as large and influential.

Video Link:

What is a Global City?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJekil09KA8
Global Cities: Introduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfUH2DKUoeI
New Clark City
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjuqAH4cf5E