Sequences

Dr. M anish K K handelwal

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics,
Indira Gandhi National Tribal University,
(A Central University)
Amarakantak, Madhya Pradesh-484887
Email: khandelwal@igntu.ac.in

January 27, 2021

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 1

Motivation:

• Everyone knows how to add two numbers together, or even several.

• How do you add infinitely many numbers together ?

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 2

Motivation:

What is a sequence?

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 3

Motivation:

The solution of the problems is be organised. i.e. a list of things.

A list of thing is called a sequence or an ordered list thing is called a
sequence (to be more precious)

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 4

Introduction:

Definition
A sequence of real numbers is a function from the set N of natural numbers
to the set R of real numbers.
If f : N → R is a sequence, and if an = f (n) for n ∈ N, then we write the
sequence f as {an }.
A sequence of real numbers is also called a real sequence.

Note: It is not mandatory to start with 1.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 5

Introduction:

Remark
Notation: The domain for a sequence is always N , a sequence is specified
by the value of Sn , n ∈ N. Thus a sequence may be denoted as

{Sn }, n ∈ N, or {S1 , S2 , S3 , . . . }

or
{an }, n ∈ N, or {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . }

Examples

(i) {an } with an = 1 for all n ∈ N-a constant sequence.

√ √ √
(ii) {an } = { n} = {1, 2, 3, · · · },
1 2
(iii) {an } = { n−1
n } = {0, 2 , 3 , · · · },
(iv) {an } = {(−1)n+1 1n } = {1, − 12 , 13 , · · · },
(v) {an } = {(−1)n+1 } = {1, −1, 1, ..}.
   
1 1 1 1
(vi) {an } = = 1, , , , .. .
n 2 3 4
Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 6
Introduction:

Definition
Range Set: Range set is the set containing of all distinct elements of a se-
quence, without repetition and without regards to the position of a term.
Range set may be finite of infinite set.

Example
(i) {an } with an = 1 for all n ∈ N. Range Set: {1}
   
1 1 1 1
(ii) {an } = Range Set: 1, , , , ..
n 2 3 4
(iii) {an } = {(−1)n+1 } Range Set: {1, −1}
(iv) {an } = {1 + (−1)n } Range Set: {0, 2}
(v) {an } = { n−1
n } Range Set: {0, 12 , 23 , · · · }
(vi) {an } = {(−1)n+1 1n } Range Set: {1, − 12 , 13 , · · · }

Note: For instance, a number may be repeated in a sequence {an }, but it

need not be written repeatedly in the range set.
Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 7
Behaviour of the Sequence

Example
√ √ √
{an } = { n} = {1, 2, 3, · · · },

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 8

Behaviour of the Sequence

Example
   
1 1 1 1
{an } = = 1, , , , ..
n 2 3 4

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 9

Behaviour of the Sequence

Example
 
n+1 1
{an } = (−1) = {1, − 12 , 13 , · · · },
n

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 10

Behaviour of the Sequence

Example
  
n−1
{an } = (−1)n+1
n

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 11

Definition

Definition
Limit: A sequence is said to tend to a limit l, if for every  > 0, a value N of
n can be found such that |an − l| <  for n ≥ N.
We then write lim an = l or simply an → l as n → ∞
n→∞

Definition
Bounded sequence: A sequence (an ) is said to be bounded, if there exists a
number k such that an < k for every n

Definition
Monotonic sequence: The sequence (an ) is said to increase steadily or
decrease steadily according as an+1 ≥ an or an+1 ≤ an , for all values of n.
Both incresing and decreasing sequences are called monotonic sequences.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 12

Convergence and divergence

We have observe that

1 an = 1: every term of the sequence is same,
√
2 an = n: the terms becomes larger and larger,
n−1
3 an = n : the terms come closer to 1 as n becomes larger and larger,
4 an = (−1)n+1 n1 : the terms come closer to 0 as n becomes larger and
larger,
5 an = (−1)n+1 : the terms of the sequence oscillates with values -1 and 1,
and does not come closer to any number as n becomes larger and larger.
Now, we make precise the statement "an comes closer to a number L" as n
becomes larger and larger.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 13

-N Definition of Convergence of Sequences

Definition
A sequence {an } in R is said to converge to a real number L if for every
 > 0, there exits positive integer N (in general depending on ) such that
|an − L| <  , ∀ n ≥ N,
and in that case, the number L is called a limit of the sequence {an }, and
{an } is called a convergent sequence.
If no such number L exists, we say {an } diverges.

Note: we say that a sequence sequence an converges to l then lim an = l.

n→∞

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 14

Graphical representation of a limit of a sequence.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 15

This definition ensures that
• From some stage onwards the difference between an and L can be be
made less than any preassigned positive number  , however small, i.e.
given any positive real number  , no matter however small, ∃ a positive
integer N such that Nth term onwards , an remains arbitrarily close to l
• At the most a finite number of terms of the sequence can lies outside
(L − , L + ).
• If we find even one  > 0 for which infinitely many terms of the se-
quence lie outside (L − , L + ), then sequence cannot converge to
L.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 16

Example
(−1)n
     
1 1
Show that the sequences , and 1 − converges to the
n n n
limits 0, 0 and 1, respectively.

Solution:
1
(i) Let an = for all n ∈ N, and let  > 0 be given. We have to identify an
n
1
N ∈ N such that <  for all n ≥ N. Note that
n
1 1
<⇔n> .
n 
 
1
Thus, if we take N = + 1, then we have


Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 17

 1
|an − 0| = < ∀n ≥ N.
n
1
Hence, n converges to 0. Here dxe denotes the integer part of x.
(−1)n
(ii) Next, Let an = for all n ∈ N. Since |an | = 1 for all n ∈ N, in
n
this case also, we see that
 
1 1
|an − 0| = <  ∀n ≥ N := + 1.
n 

(−1)n
 
Hence, converges to 0.
n
1 1
(iii) Now, let an = 1 − for all n ∈ N. Since. |an − 1| = for all n ∈ N,
n n
we have  
1
|an − 1| <  ∀n ≥ N := + 1.

 
1
Hence, 1 − converges to 1.
n

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 18

Example
Find the N for a sequence {an } where an = k.

According definition: |an − l| <  ∀ n ≥ N

Now |k − k| <  =⇒ 0 < . This means that we can choose any value
of n or any N. Hence, |an − k| <  ∀ n ≥ 1.
=⇒
lim k = k
n→∞

Example
√
3+2 n
Show that lim = √ = 2.
n→∞ n

Let  be any positive number

 √   
3 + 2 n  3 
 √  <  or n > 9

 √ − 2 , =⇒
 n  n 2

so N be a positive integer grater than 9/2 .

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 19
Some Important Results:

• Every convergent sequence is bounded.

• A sequence cannot converge to more than one limit.
• Every convergent sequence is bounded and has a unique limit.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 20

Cauchy’s General Principal of Convergence

When limit L is not known (nor can any guess be made of the same.)
Definition
A necessary and sufficient condition for the convergence of a sequence {an }
is that , for each  > 0, ∃ a positive integer m such that

|an+p − an | <  ∀ n ≥ m, p ≥ 1

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 21

Cauchy Sequence:

Definition
A sequence {an } is called a Cauchy sequence or a fundamental sequence if
for each  > 0, ∃ a positive integer m such that

|an+p − an | <  ∀ n ≥ m, p ≥ 1

Note that in the field of real numbers, a sequence is convergent iff it is a

Cauchy sequence.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 22

Limit Point of a Sequence

Definition
A real number α is said to be a limit point of a sequence {an } , if every
neighbourhood of α contains an infinite numbers of the sequence.
Thus α is a limit point of a sequence if given any positive number , however
small, an ∈ (α − , α + ) for an infinite number of values of n, i.e.
|an − α| < , for infinitely many values of n.

Remark
A limit of the range set of a sequence is also a limit point of the sequence but
converse may not always be true.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 23

Limit Point of a Sequence

• The constant sequence {an }, where an = 1, ∀ n ∈ N, has the only limit

point 1. The range is 1 and has no limit point.
 
1
• The sequence has 0 as a limit point which is as well a limit point
 n 
1 1 1
of the range 1, , , , . . .
2 3 4
• 0 and 2 are the only limit points of the sequence {1 + (−1)n }, n ∈ N.
The range set {0, 2} has no limit point.
 
n 1
• 1 and -1 are two limit points of the sequence {(−1) 1 + }, n ∈ N
n
which are also limit points of the range set.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 24

Existence of the Limit Point

Theorem
Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem: Every bounded sequence has a limit point.

Remark
The converse of the theorem is not always true, for there do exist unbounded
sequence having only one real limit point.

Example: {1, 2, 1, 4, 1, 6, . . . } has a unique limit point , but it is not

bounded above.
Theorem
Every bounded sequence with a unique limit point is convergent.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 25

Remark on non-convergent Sequence

1 A bounded sequence which does not converge, and has at least two limit
points, is said to oscillate finitely.
2 An unbounded sequence is said to oscillate infinitely if it diverges neither
to +∞ nor to −∞.
3 A bounded sequence either converges or else oscillates finitely but an
unbounded sequence either diverges to +∞ or −∞ oscillates infinitely

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 26

Sequence {rn }

Example
Test the convergence/divergence of sequence {rn }.

Case:1 When r > 1

∴ rn = (1 + h)n > 1 + nh ∀ n ∈ N
If  > 0 be any number however large, we have
−1
1 + nh > , if n >
h
−1
Let m is a positive integer greater than , therefore for  > 0 ∃ a positive
n
h
integer m such that r > , ∀ n ≥ m. Hence sequence diverges to ∞.
Case:2 When r = 1
In this case lim rn = 1. The sequence converge to 1.
Case:3 When r = −1
In this case the sequence {(−1)n } is bounded and has two limit points.
Hence the sequence oscillates finitely.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 27

Sequence {rn }

Case:4 When r < 1

1
We take |r| = , h > 0.
1+h
1 1
∴ |rn | = |r|n = ≤ ∀ n ∈ N.
(1 + h)n (1 + nh)
We take  > 0 then
 
1
−1
1 
< , when n >
(1 + nh) h

( 1 −1)
Let m be a positive integer greater than  h =⇒ for  > 0 , there exist a
positive integer m such that |rn | < , n ≥ m. Hence {rn } converges to 0 for
|r| < 1. Case:5 When r < −1
Let r = −t so that t > 1. Thus we get the sequence {(−1)n tn }. This
sequence oscillates infinitely.
Remark
The sequence {rn } converges to zero iff |r| < 1.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 28

Examples

• {1 + (−1)n } oscillates finitely.

  
n 1
• (−1) 1 + oscillates finitely
n
• {−2n } diverges to −∞
(−1)n−1
 
• converges to the limit 0.
n!
 
1
• 1+ converges to the limit 1.
n
 
1 1
• 1, 2, , 3, . . . oscillates infinitely (bounded below and unbounded
2 3
above)
 
1
• The sequence m + , where m, n are natural numbers, also
n
oscillates infinitely, 1, 2, 3 . . . being its limit point

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 29

Some important theorems

Theorem
If {an } and {bn } be two sequence such that lim an = a, lim bn = b then
(i) lim(an ± bn ) = lim an ± lim bn
(ii) lim(an bn ) = lim an lim bn
(iii) lim(an /bn ) = lim an / lim bn if b 6= 0, bn 6= 0 ∀ n.

Remark
The converse may not be true, i.e. the sequence {an ± bn }, {an bn } {an /bn }
is convergent, the sequence {an } and {bn } may not be convergent.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 30

Some important theorems

Theorem
Sandwich theorem: If {an } {bn } and {cn } are three sequences such that
(i) an ≤ bn ≤ cn ∀ n and (ii) lim an = lim cn = l then lim bn = l

Example
Showthat the sequence {bn }, where 
1 1 1
bn = + + ··· + converges to zero.
(n + 1)2 (n + 2)2 (2n)2

We can write the sequence {bn } in between two sequence such as

n n 1 1
≤ bn ≤ 2 =⇒ ≤ bn ≤
(2n)2 n 4n n

1 1
Now the sequence {an } {cn }, where an = cn = and both are having
4n n
the limit zero.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 31

Some important theorems

Theorem
Cauchy’s First theorem on limits: If lim an = l then
  n→∞
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
lim =l
n→∞ n

Example
" #
1 1 1
Show that p +p + ··· + p = 1.
(n2 + 1) (n2 + 2) (n2 + n)
n
We consider ak = p , where k = 1, 2, 3, . . . n. and
(n2 + k)
1
lim an = lim p = 1 Now we apply the theorem we get
n→∞ n→∞ (1 + k/n)
" #
1 n n n
lim p +p + ··· + p =1
n→∞ n (n2 + 1) (n2 + 2) (n2 + n)
=⇒ " #
1 n n n
lim p +p + ··· + p =1
n→∞ n (n2 + 1) (n2 + 2) (n2 + n)
Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 32
Some important theorems

Example
(i)
1h i
lim 1 + 21/2 + 31/3 · · · + n1/n = 1 (an = n1/n lim an = 1)
n→∞ n

(ii)  
1 1 1 1
lim 1 + + ··· + = 1(an = 1/n lim an = 0)
n→∞ n 2 3 n

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 33

Some important theorems

Theorem
Cauchy’s Second theorem on limits: If all the terms of a sequence {an } are
an+1
positive and if lim exists the so dose lim (an )1/n and the two limits
n→∞ an n→∞
1/n an+1
are equal, i.e. lim (an ) = lim , provided the later limit exist.
n→∞ n→∞ an

Example
1/n 1/n
Show that the sequence {an } and {bn } where
(3n)! nn
(i) an = 3
(ii) bn = converges and find
(n!) (n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + n)
their limit.
(3n)! (3n + 3)!
(i) an = and an+1 = =⇒
(n!)3 ((n + 1)!)3
an+1 (3n + 3)(3n + 2)(3n + 1)
lim = lim = 27. Applying theorem, we get
an (n + 1)3
an+1
lim(an )1/n = lim = 27. Hence convergent and limit is 27.
an
(ii) Limit is e/4
Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 34
Some important theorems

Theorem
an+1
If {an } be a sequence such that lim = l where |l| <1, then
an
lim an = 0 and |l| > 1 then lim an = ∞

Example
xn
Show that for any real number x, lim =0
n!
an+1 x
Here lim = = 0 < 1. Hence by theorem the limit is zero.
an n+1

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 35

Example

Example
2n 3n
Test whether the sequence an = is a non-decreasing or not.
n!
We take the ratio
2n+1 3n+1
an+1 (n + 1)! 6
= =
an 2n 3n n+1
n!
For increasing an+1 ≥ an i.e.
an+1
≥ 1 =⇒ n + 1 ≤ 6 =⇒ n ≤ 5
an

a1 = 6, a2 = 18, a3 = 36, a4 = 54, a5 = 64.8, a6 = 64.8, a7 = 55.542

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 36

References

R. G. Bartle and D. R. Sherbert, Introduction to Real Analysis, Fourth Edition, Wiley.

S. C. Malik and S. Arora, Mathematical Analysis, New Age International Publishers.

W. Rudin, Principles of Mathematical Analysis, McGraw Hill Education.

Online Internet Sources.

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 37

THANK YOU

Dr. M anish K K handelwal IGNTU, Amarkantak (MP) 38