Trends Research

History
About the UAE History
History
The area's history can be traced back to 6000 B.C. The UAE as a
federation did not exist then. The area and the surrounding region was referred
to as Arabian Peninsula. This page provides a brief about life in the area during
ancient times and the major events that took place on this land that affected the
sovereignty and freedom of its people and lead them to form the country of the
United Arab Emirates.
6000 - 3500BC
The Paleolithic Age
In this period, the Bedouin communities lived on fishing and plant

collecting. This era was characterised by the emergence of pottery, evidence of
which was found in Sharjah, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah and Abu Dhabi.
6000BC-
Some pottery remains almost greenish-yellow, with black, geometric

decoration were uncovered in Al Jazeerah Al Hamra in Ras Al Khaimah, in
Hamriyah in Sharjah and in Al Madar site in Umm Al Quwain. ...
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a country in the eastern part of the
Arabian Peninsula located on the southeastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the
northwestern coast of the Gulf of Oman. The UAE consists of seven emirates and
was founded on 2 December 1971 as a federation. Six of the seven emirates
(Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah) combined on
that date. The seventh, Ras al Khaimah, joined the federation on 10 February
1972. The seven sheikdoms were formerly known as the Trucial States, in
reference to the treaty relations established with the British in the 19th Century.
Artifacts uncovered in the UAE show a history of human habitation and

transmigration spanning back 125,000 years.[1] The area was previously home
to the Magan people[2] known to the Sumerians, who traded with both coastal
towns and bronze miners and smelters from the interior. A rich history of trade
with the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley is also evidenced by finds of
jewellery and other items and there is also extensive early evidence of trade with
Afghanistan[3] and Bactria[4] as well as the Levant.[5]
Through the three defined Iron Ages and the subsequent Hellenistic
Mlieiha period, the area remained an important coastal trading entrepôt. As a
result of the Ridda Wars, the area became Islamised in the 7th Century. Small
trading ports developed alongside inland oases such as Liwa, Al Ain and Dhaid
and tribal bedouin society co-existed with settled populations in the coastal
areas.
A number of incursions and bloody battles took place along the coast
when the Portuguese, under Afonso de Albuquerque, invaded the area. Conflicts
between the maritime communities of the Trucial Coast and the British led to the
sacking of Ras Al Khaimah by British forces in 1809 and again in 1819, which
resulted in the first of a number of British treaties with the Trucial Rulers in
1820. These treaties, including the Treaty of Perpetual Maritime Peace, signed in
1853, led to peace and prosperity along the coast and supported a lively trade in
high quality natural pearls which lasted until the 1930s, when the pearl trade
collapsed, leading to significant hardship among the coastal communities. A
further treaty of 1892 devolved external relations to the British in return for
protectorate status.
A British decision, taken in early 1968, to withdraw from its involvement in
the Trucial States, led to the decision to found a Federation. This was agreed
between two of the most influential Trucial Rulers, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al
Nahyan of Abu Dhabi and Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum of Dubai. The
two invited other Trucial Rulers to join the Federation. At one stage it seemed
likely Bahrain and Qatar would also join the Union, but both eventually decided
on independence.
Today, the UAE is a modern, oil exporting country with a highly diversified
economy, with Dubai in particular developing into a global hub for tourism, retail,
and finance,[6] home to the world's tallest building, and largest man-made
seaport. This discussion focuses on the United Arab Emirates since the 19th
century. For a treatment of earlier periods and of the country in its regional
context, see Arabia, history of.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the dominant tribal faction was
the Qasimi family (Āl Qawāsim; singular Qāsimī), whose ships controlled the
maritime commerce (notably fishing and pearling) concentrated in the lower
Persian Gulf and in much of the Indian Ocean. Attacks on British and Indian
ships led to a British naval attack in 1819 that defeated the Qasimi forces, and
the British became dominant in the region.
The Qasimi family thus lost power and influence in the region, and the
Banū Yās tribal confederation of Abu Dhabi became dominant. The Banū Yās
were centred on the Al-ʿAyn and Al-Liwāʾ oases of Abu Dhabi, and their
strength was land-based. Under the leadership of the Āl Nahyān (members of
the Āl Bū Falāḥ tribe), the Banū Yās have been the most powerful element in the
region since the mid-19th century. The principal sheikhs along the coast signed a
series of agreements during that century—a general treaty of peace in 1820, the
perpetual maritime truce in 1853 (which gave the Trucial Coast its name), and
exclusive agreements in 1892 restricting their foreign relations to British
discretion—and the sheikhdoms became known as the Trucial States.
A council of the Trucial States began to meet semiannually in 1952 to

discuss administrative issues. In January 1968, following the announcement by
the British government that its forces would be withdrawn from the Persian Gulf
by late 1971, Trucial Oman and the sheikhdoms of Qatar and Bahrain initiated
plans to form a confederation. After three years of negotiations, however, Qatar
and Bahrain decided to become independent sovereign states, and the former
Trucial States, excluding Raʾs al-Khaymah, announced the formation of the
United Arab Emirates in December 1971. Raʾs al-Khaymah joined the federation
in February 1972.
Chapter I
Introduction
United Arab Emirates (also known as U.A.E) is a federation of seven

emirates that can be found on the southeast end of Arab Peninsula. Even though
UAE is traditionally conservative, the UAE is one of the most liberal countries in
the Gulf, with other cultures and beliefs generally tolerated. However, they are
still political authoritarian. The country is made up of a federation of monarchies,
where the legal system is a mix of civil and Islamic law. Suffrage is limited – with
only a few chosen citizens able to vote for the unicameral Federal National
Council – and political parties are banned.
Its two large and famous cities – Dubai and Abu Dhabi, have drawn
millions of tourists every year. Dubai is the regional business hub and is known
for its sleek skyscrapers. The famous and spectacular Burj Khalifa can be found
in this city. While Abu Dhabi is the Federal National Council and it serves as the
National Capital of the UAE.
Before oil was discovered in the 1950s the UAE's economy was dependent
on fishing and a declining pearl industry. But since oil exports began in 1962, the
country's society and economy have been transformed. UAE become one of the
richest country in the world and Is responsible producer and critical partner in
global energy markets. As a main stay to the economy, oil exports now account
for about 25 percent of the UAE’s gross domestic product.
The education in UAE is compulsory where age 5 and above including

expat residence. Primary and secondary education in state institutions is
provided free for every UAE national up to the age of 18. The education system
in UAE is 4-tire system which includes nursery education, kindergarten
education, primary education, and secondary education.
We, the researchers, chose this country from Middle East because UAE is
making an impact for a long time in the world. Also, the country is quite famous
for Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) which affects our decision in choosing this
for our research.
UAE is an interesting country and learning its system, policies, culture and
traditions will help us determine the differences between UAE and other
countries in Asia. From its federal system to its authoritarian politics, it will surely
give us ideas on why UAE is one of the most dominant countries in the aspect of
Economics.
Chapter II
Achievements and Problems
Paying Taxes
The UAE is the best place in the world in terms of ease of paying taxes,
according to the 'Doing Business 2016' report published by World Bank and the
International Finance Corporation. It scored an astounding 99.44 score on the
DTF for paying taxes.
Transport infrastructure
Take the bus or riding the Metro? You're in fact enjoying the world's top
transport system according to the World Economic Forum. It ranks number 1 in
the world followed by Hong Kong and Saudi Arabia
Quality of Roads
Whenever you're driving down Shaikh Zayed Road remember one thing -
the UAE is number 1 in the world for Quality of Roads according to the Global
Competitiveness Index made by the World Economic Forum. The roads are
characterized as extensive and efficient and the UAE is the only GCC country
within the top 10.
Global talent competitiveness
The UAE is on the top spot in the MENA region for the number of
professionals that are competitive in their selected fields. The INSEAD research
proves that the UAE professional industry is made up of world-class talent from
all over the world.
Lifestyle destination for families and entreprenuers
The UAE's commercial capital Dubai is ranked at number 4 and 5 as the

best lifestyle destination for families and entrepreneurs based on the 2016 Knight
Frank Global Lifestyle Report. It is the only Middle Eastern city in the top 10 of
both categories. Other than that, Knight Frank also ranked Dubai as having an
'Outstanding Quality of Life' in the categories of Distance to the Airport, Average
cost of a litre of Petrol, Available Leisure Pursuits and Number of International
Schools.
Public trust in politicians
The UAE is only second to Singapore when it comes to the public's trust in
their politicians and heads of state. For the UAE, this translates to the nation's
love for the rulers of every emirate especially the Emirs of Abu Dhabi and Dubai,
The President, His Highness Shaikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan and His
Highness Shaikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice-President and Prime
Minister of the UAE and Ruler of Dubai.
Quality of air transport infrastructure
Again being topped by Singapore, the UAE still shines and flies high in the
world in terms of air transport quality and infrastructure according to the World
Economic Forum. Case in point, Dubai and Abu Dhabi both have stellar airports
and they are both expanding the air transport industry with the introduction of
Dubai World Central for example.
Security
The UAE ranks No. 2 in the world in the latest report by the World
Economic Forum in terms of security being eclipsed by Finland for the top spot.
It should be noted that the UAE is the #1 country in the region in terms of
security followed by Qatar.
Dealing with construction permits
See those big construction projects taking place at every emirate? They're
everywhere right? That is because the UAE is #2 in the world for getting and
dealing with construction permits. After all, if the UAE's vision is a city of the
future, that vision needs to be built and the Doing Business 2016 report seems to
concur.
Social media usage
The Ericsson Mobility Report on the MENA region shows the UAE as #2
when it comes to usage of social media. It shies away by 2% over Saudi Arabia
who garnered 48% over the UAE's 46% when a survey was conducted asking
the question whether social media is something they think they couldn't live
without.
Most visited country
The World Economic Forum hailed the Dubai recently as the fourth most
visited country in the world surpassing classic tourists destinations such as
Tokyo, Malaysia and even New York City. According to the numbers provided by
the World Economic Forum, the UAE netted an amazing 15.27 million
international visitors this year - a huge lead behind New York who only gained
12.75 million international visitors.
Problems
Human Rights
A convoy of UAE military vehicles and personnel travels from Al Hamra

Military Base to Zayed Military City, marking the return of the first batch of UAE
Armed Forces military personnel from Yemen, in Abu Dhabi, United Arab
Emirates. The United Arab Emirates’ intolerance of criticism continued in 2018 as
authorities in May sentenced Ahmed Mansoor, an Emirati award-winning human
rights activist, to a 10-year prison sentence for exercising his right to free
expression. The government continues to arbitrarily detain and forcibly disappear
individuals who criticize authorities.
The UAE maintains their leading role in the Saudi-led military coalition,
which has conducted scores of unlawful attacks in Yemen. The UAE was
implicated in detainee abuse at home and abroad. Labor abuses persist. Migrant
construction workers face serious exploitation. The UAE introduced a domestic
workers law providing them labor rights for the first time in September 2017, but
some provisions are weaker than those provided to other workers under the
labor law. The UAE continued to block representatives of international human
rights organizations from visiting.
Freedom of Expression
UAE authorities have launched a sustained assault on freedom of

expression and association since 2011. The UAE arbitrarily detains and forcibly
disappears individuals who criticize the authorities within the UAE’s borders. UAE
residents who have spoken about human rights issues are at serious risk of
arbitrary detention, imprisonment, and torture. Many are serving long prison
terms or have left the country under pressure.
The United Arab Emirates’ intolerance of criticism continued in 2018 as


In March 2017, the UAE detained Ahmed Mansoor, an award-winning

human rights defender, on speech-related charges that included using social
media websites to “publish false information that harms national unity.” Before
his arrest, Mansoor had called for the release of Osama al-Najjar, who remains in
prison despite having completed a three-year prison sentence on charges related
to his peaceful activities on Twitter. Authorities held Mansoor in an unknown
location for more than a year with no access to a lawyer and only very limited
family visits before being sentenced to 10 years in prison for crimes that appear
to violate his right to free expression on May 29, 2018.
In March 2017, the UAE imposed a 10-year prison sentence on prominent

academic Nasser bin-Ghaith, whom authorities forcibly disappeared in August
2015, for charges that included peaceful criticism of the UAE and Egyptian
authorities. The Gulf Centre for Human Rights reported that bin-Ghaith initiated a
hunger strike in February to protest poor conditions in Al-Razeen prison and he
ended it in April after Emirati authorities threatened to restrict visits.
On May 5, 2018, security forces arrested British citizen Matthew Hedges at

Dubai International Airport as he was preparing to leave the country following a
two-week trip to the UAE. Authorities held Hedges, a PhD candidate at Durham
University, in incommunicado detention for the first two weeks and did not allow
him access to legal counsel until October 10, at his second court hearing, more
than five months after his arrest. According to a relative, authorities held him in
solitary confinement in an undisclosed location in Abu Dhabi for the majority of
his time in pretrial detention. On October 16, UAE’s public prosecutor referred
Hedges to the Abu Dhabi Federal Court of Appeal on state security charges of
“spying for a foreign state” based partly on his confession. On November 21, the
Abu Dhabi Federal Court of Appeal sentenced Hedges to life in prison. Five days
later, following growing diplomatic pressure and international outrage, the UAE
pardoned him. Unlawful Yemen Attacks and Detainee Abuse
The UAE is a leading member of the Saudi-led coalition operating in

Yemen. Human Rights Watch has documented about 90 apparently unlawful
coalition attacks, some likely war crimes, since March 2015.
Coalition members have provided insufficient information about the role

their forces are playing in the campaign to determine which are responsible for
unlawful attacks. In March 2015, the Emirati State news agency reported that
the UAE had deployed 30 aircraft to take part in coalition operations. In March
2017, after a helicopter attacked a boat carrying Somali migrants and refugees
off Yemen’s coast, killing and wounding dozens, a member of the UAE armed
forces said UAE forces were operating in the area but denied carrying out the
attack.
The UAE leads coalition efforts in southern Yemen, including by

supporting Yemeni forces carrying out security campaigns. Human Rights Watch
has documented abuses by UAE proxy forces, including use of excessive force
during arrests, detaining family members of wanted suspects to pressure them
to “voluntarily” turn themselves in, arbitrarily detaining men and boys, detaining
children with adults, and forcibly disappearing dozens. Former detainees and
family members reported abuse or torture inside facilities run by the UAE and
UAE-backed forces. Yemeni activists who have criticized these abuses have been
threatened, harassed, detained, and disappeared.
Emirati commanders face possible criminal liability as a matter of

command responsibility. The United Nations Security Council should consider
imposing targeted sanctions on senior coalition commanders who share the
greatest responsibility for serious repeated violations.
Migrant Workers
Foreign nationals account for more than 88.5 percent of the UAE’s
population, according to 2011 government statistics. Many low-paid migrant
workers remain acutely vulnerable to forced labor, despite some reforms. The
kafala (visa-sponsorship) system continues to tie migrant workers to their
employers. Those who leave their employers can face punishment for
“absconding,” including fines, prison, and deportation.
The UAE’s labor law excludes domestic workers, who face a range of
abuses, from unpaid wages, confinement to the house, workdays up to 21 hours
with no breaks, to physical or sexual assault by employers, from its protections.
Domestic workers face legal and practical obstacles to redress.
The UAE has made some reforms to increase domestic worker protection.
In September 2017, the president signed a bill on domestic workers that
guarantees domestic workers labor rights for the first time including a weekly
rest day, 30 days of paid annual leave, sick leave, and 12 hours of rest a day. In
some cases, the law allows for inspections of recruitment agency offices,
workplaces, and residences, and sets out penalties for violations.
But the 2017 law does not prohibit employers from charging
reimbursement for recruitment expenses and requires that workers who
terminate employment without a breach of contract compensate their employers
with one month’s salary and pay for their own tickets home. In June, while
authorities set out new fixed recruitment fees that included some packages of
fixed salaries for domestic workers, these salaries discriminate by nationality.
Women’s Rights
Discrimination on the basis of sex and gender is not included in the

definition of discrimination in the UAE’s 2015 anti-discrimination law. Federal Law
No. 28 of 2005 regulates personal status matters. Some of its provisions
discriminate against women. For a woman to marry, her male guardian must
conclude her marriage contract; men have the right to unilaterally divorce their
wives, whereas a woman must apply for a court order to obtain a divorce; a
woman can lose her right to maintenance if, for example, she refuses to have
sexual relations with her husband without a lawful excuse; and women are
required to “obey” their husbands. A woman may be considered disobedient,
with few exceptions, if she decides to work without her husband’s consent.
UAE law permits domestic violence. Article 53 of the penal code allows the
imposition of “chastisement by a husband to his wife and the chastisement of
minor children” so long as the assault does not exceed the limits of Islamic law.
Marital rape is not a crime. In 2010, the Federal Supreme Court issued a ruling,
citing the penal code, that sanctions husbands’ beating and infliction of other
forms of punishment or coercion on their wives, provided they do not leave
physical marks.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Article 356 of the penal code criminalizes (but does not define)
“indecency” and provides for a minimum sentence of one year in prison. UAE
courts use this article to convict and sentence people for zina offenses, which
include consensual heterosexual relations outside marriage.
Different emirates within the UAE’s federal system have laws that
criminalize same-sex sexual relations, including Abu Dhabi, where “unnatural sex
with another person” can be punished with up to 14 years in prison. Similarly,
article 177 of the penal code of the Emirate of Dubai punishes consensual
sodomy by imprisonment of up to 10 years.
Additionally, the UAE’s federal penal code punishes “any male disguised in
a female apparel and enters in this disguise a place reserved for women or
where entry is forbidden, at that time, for other than women” with one year’s
imprisonment, a fine of up to 10,000 dirhams (US$2,723), or both. In practice,
transgender women have been arrested under this law even in mixed-gender
spaces.
Key International Actors
In October, the European Parliament adopted a resolution condemning

the UAE’s harassment of human rights defenders, calling for the release of
Ahmed Mansoor, and calling for an EU-wide ban on the export to the UAE of
security equipment which can be used for internal repression. It remains the only
EU body to have openly called for Mansoor’s release. Modern 21st.
seaport.
Chapter III
Present day of UAE
seaport. The United Arab Emirates’ intolerance of criticism continued in 2018 as

In March 2017, the UAE detained Ahmed Mansoor, an award-winning

human rights defender, on speech-related charges that included using social
media websites to “publish false information that harms national unity.” Before
his arrest, Mansoor had called for the release of Osama al-Najjar, who remains in
prison despite having completed a three-year prison sentence on charges related
to his peaceful activities on Twitter. Authorities held Mansoor in an unknown
location for more than a year with no access to a lawyer and only very limited
family visits before being sentenced to 10 years in prison for crimes that appear
to violate his right to free expression on May 29, 2018.
In March 2017, the UAE imposed a 10-year prison sentence on prominent

academic Nasser bin-Ghaith, whom authorities forcibly disappeared in August
2015, for charges that included peaceful criticism of the UAE and Egyptian
authorities. The Gulf Centre for Human Rights reported that bin-Ghaith initiated a
hunger strike in February to protest poor conditions in Al-Razeen prison and he
ended it in April after Emirati authorities threatened to restrict visits.
On May 5, 2018, security forces arrested British citizen Matthew Hedges at

Dubai International Airport as he was preparing to leave the country following a
two-week trip to the UAE. Authorities held Hedges, a PhD candidate at Durham
University, in incommunicado detention for the first two weeks and did not allow
him access to legal counsel until October 10, at his second court hearing, more
than five months after his arrest. According to a relative, authorities held him in
solitary confinement in an undisclosed location in Abu Dhabi for the majority of
his time in pretrial detention. On October 16, UAE’s public prosecutor referred
Hedges to the Abu Dhabi Federal Court of Appeal on state security charges of
“spying for a foreign state” based partly on his confession. On November 21, the
Abu Dhabi Federal Court of Appeal sentenced Hedges to life in prison. Five days
later, following growing diplomatic pressure and international outrage, the UAE
pardoned him. Unlawful Yemen Attacks and Detainee Abuse. The UAE is a
leading member of the Saudi-led coalition operating in Yemen. Human Rights
Watch has documented about 90 apparently unlawful coalition attacks, some
likely war crimes, since March 2015.
Coalition members have provided insufficient information about the role

their forces are playing in the campaign to determine which are responsible for
unlawful attacks. In March 2015, the Emirati State news agency reported that
the UAE had deployed 30 aircraft to take part in coalition operations. In March
2017, after a helicopter attacked a boat carrying Somali migrants and refugees
off Yemen’s coast, killing and wounding dozens, a member of the UAE armed
forces said UAE forces were operating in the area but denied carrying out the
attack.
The UAE leads coalition efforts in southern Yemen, including by

supporting Yemeni forces carrying out security campaigns. Human Rights Watch
has documented abuses by UAE proxy forces, including use of excessive force
during arrests, detaining family members of wanted suspects to pressure them
to “voluntarily” turn themselves in, arbitrarily detaining men and boys, detaining
children with adults, and forcibly disappearing dozens. Former detainees and
family members reported abuse or torture inside facilities run by the UAE and
UAE-backed forces. Yemeni activists who have criticized these abuses have been
threatened, harassed, detained, and disappeared. Emirati commanders face
possible criminal liability as a matter of command responsibility. The United
Nations Security Council should consider imposing targeted sanctions on senior
coalition commanders who share the greatest responsibility for serious repeated
violations.
Migrant Workers
Foreign nationals account for more than 88.5 percent of the UAE’s
population, according to 2011 government statistics. Many low-paid migrant
workers remain acutely vulnerable to forced labor, despite some reforms. The
kafala (visa-sponsorship) system continues to tie migrant workers to their
employers. Those who leave their employers can face punishment for
“absconding,” including fines, prison, and deportation.
The UAE’s labor law excludes domestic workers, who face a range of
abuses, from unpaid wages, confinement to the house, workdays up to 21 hours
with no breaks, to physical or sexual assault by employers, from its protections.
Domestic workers face legal and practical obstacles to redress.
The UAE has made some reforms to increase domestic worker protection.
In September 2017, the president signed a bill on domestic workers that
guarantees domestic workers labor rights for the first time including a weekly
rest day, 30 days of paid annual leave, sick leave, and 12 hours of rest a day. In
some cases, the law allows for inspections of recruitment agency offices,
workplaces, and residences, and sets out penalties for violations.
But the 2017 law does not prohibit employers from charging
reimbursement for recruitment expenses and requires that workers who
terminate employment without a breach of contract compensate their employers
with one month’s salary and pay for their own tickets home. In June, while
authorities set out new fixed recruitment fees that included some packages of
fixed salaries for domestic workers, these salaries discriminate by nationality.
Women’s Rights
Discrimination on the basis of sex and gender is not included in the

definition of discrimination in the UAE’s 2015 anti-discrimination law. Federal Law
No. 28 of 2005 regulates personal status matters. Some of its provisions
discriminate against women. For a woman to marry, her male guardian must
conclude her marriage contract; men have the right to unilaterally divorce their
wives, whereas a woman must apply for a court order to obtain a divorce; a
woman can lose her right to maintenance if, for example, she refuses to have
sexual relations with her husband without a lawful excuse; and women are
required to “obey” their husbands. A woman may be considered disobedient,
with few exceptions, if she decides to work without her husband’s consent.
UAE law permits domestic violence. Article 53 of the penal code allows the
imposition of “chastisement by a husband to his wife and the chastisement of
minor children” so long as the assault does not exceed the limits of Islamic law.
Marital rape is not a crime. In 2010, the Federal Supreme Court issued a ruling,
citing the penal code, that sanctions husbands’ beating and infliction of other
forms of punishment or coercion on their wives, provided they do not leave
physical marks.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Article 356 of the penal code criminalizes (but does not define)
“indecency” and provides for a minimum sentence of one year in prison. UAE
courts use this article to convict and sentence people for zina offenses, which
include consensual heterosexual relations outside marriage.
Different emirates within the UAE’s federal system have laws that criminalize
same-sex sexual relations, including Abu Dhabi, where “unnatural sex with
another person” can be punished with up to 14 years in prison. Similarly, article
177 of the penal code of the Emirate of Dubai punishes consensual sodomy by
imprisonment of up to 10 years.
Additionally, the UAE’s federal penal code punishes “any male disguised in
a female apparel and enters in this disguise a place reserved for women or
where entry is forbidden, at that time, for other than women” with one year’s
imprisonment, a fine of up to 10,000 dirhams (US$2,723), or both. In practice,
transgender women have been arrested under this law even in mixed-gender
spaces.
Key International Actors
In October, the European Parliament adopted a resolution condemning

the UAE’s harassment of human rights defenders, calling for the release of
Ahmed Mansoor, and calling for an EU-wide ban on the export to the UAE of
security equipment which can be used for internal repression. It remains the only
EU body to have openly called for Mansoor’s release.
The UAE will remain politically stable in 2020-24 despite rising regional
tensions centred on Iran. A possible transfer of power in Abu Dhabi from the
current ruler, who is in poor health, to the crown prince will go smoothly. Real
GDP growth will pick-up in 2020 with the hosting of Expo 2020, and higher oil
prices. Economic diversification and improving the business environment will be
the major policy priorities. Government revenue will, however, remain dependent
on the hydrocarbons sector.
According to Ibrahim Al Jarwan, member of the Arab Union for Astronomy

and Space Science, Eid Al Fitr is expected to fall on May 24 (Sunday), 2020,
which in turn means a week-long break for UAE residents since Eid Al Fitr
holidays (Ramadan 29-Shawwal 3) can range from four to five days. Four days of
holiday if Ramadan has 29 days, a five-day holiday if Ramadan has 30 days.
Chapter IV
Democratic processes of U.A.E Elections
Federal National Council elections: how to vote
The main election day is set for October 5, when hundreds and thousands
of Emiratis will cast their ballots to elect 20 of the more than 400 candidates in
the race to join the FNC
Voters at the polling machines for the 2015 Federal National Council
election in Fujairah. Antonie Robertson / The National
Polls will open for UAE’s largest election on October 5 - when most
Emiratis will cast their ballots to elect half the members of the country’s Federal
National Council.
Thirty-nine polling stations across the UAE will accommodate the 330,000
Emiratis eligible to vote in this year’s election.
Of these, nine polling stations will open early, between October 1-3, for
citizens who keen on voting before the main election day. Overseas voting, at
118 polling stations, was completed last week.
So how can Emiratis vote? Who is eligible and how do the FNC elections
work? The National answers all here:
Only Emiratis whose names have been included in the Electoral College
List have the right to vote.
This year will be the largest election to date with 337,738 Emiratis
included in the list by the National Elections Committee.
How Emiratis are chosen is unclear but citizens can only vote for
candidates in their respective emirates.
The list identified 101,549 voters from Abu Dhabi, 60,772 from Dubai,
64,293 from Sharjah, 10,165 from Ajman, 6,653 from Umm Al Quwain, 55,289
from Ras Al Khaimah and 39,017 from Fujairah.
The full list of eligible voters is on the committee’s website -

www.uaenec.ae - where Emiratis must validate their names by entering their
Emirates ID number.
Where to vote?
Emiratis abroad cast their ballots on September 22 and 23 at voting

booths set up at UAE embassies and in consulates.
Three early voting stations will be set up in Abu Dhabi (one in Abu Dhabi
city, one in Al Ain and one in Al Garbia region). Each other emirate will have its
own early polling station from October 1 to 3, when Emiratis can vote between
9am and 6pm.
The main election day is October 5, when preliminary results will be

announced.
Fourteen polling stations will be set in Abu Dhabi, five in Abu Dhabi city,
five in Al Ain and four in Al Gharbia region.
Six stations will be available in Dubai, seven in Sharjah, two in Ajman, five
in Ras Al Khaimah, two in Umm Al Quwain and three in Fujairah.
All 39 stations will open from 8am to 8pm on Election Day.

The National Election Committee may extend the election if deemed
necessary.
Members of the Electoral College have the right to cast one vote for a
candidate of their choice from the emirate they belong to. Candidates can vote
for themselves.
Voters must bring their Emirates ID to their nearest polling station, even if
it is not in the same emirate they belong to.
Voters cannot authorise anyone to vote on their behalf but illiterate voters
or people with special needs can vote verbally and confidentially to the chairman
of the election committee or one of the committee members authorised by the
chairman.
Eligible Emiratis living in the UAE can also cast their ballots through an
electronic voting system at specific stations across the country.
Currently, 479 Emiratis are competing for 20 FNC seats. The remaining 20
members are appointed by the Rulers of each emirate.
The preliminary list of elected members will be released on October 5

after the polls close, unless an extension is announced.
Candidates can register appeals on October 6 and 7, which the National

Elections Committee will respond to on October 9 to 10.
The final list of elected candidates will be announced on October 13,

unless supplementary elections are held.
The Federal National Council is one of five federal authorities established

by the UAE constitution. It held its first session on December 2, 1972, a year to
the day after federation. It has 40 members and its speaker is Dr Amal Al
Qubaisi.
The members represent the UAE population through each of the emirates.
Abu Dhabi and Dubai have eight members each, Sharjah and Ras al Khaimah six,
and Ajman, Fujairah and Umm Al Quwain have four.
They bring Emirati issues to the council for debate and put those concerns
to ministers summoned for questioning.
The FNC’s main functions include passing, amending or rejecting draft

federal laws, discussing international treaties and agreements, and offering
recommendations on general subjects raised during sessions. TheThe largest of
these emirates, Abu Dhabi (Abū Ẓaby), which comprises more than three-fourths
of the federation’s total land area, is the centre of its oil industry and borders
Saudi Arabia on the federation’s southern and eastern borders. The port city of
Dubai, located at the base of the mountainous Musandam Peninsula, is the
capital of the emirate of Dubai (Dubayy) and is one of the region’s most vital
commercial and financial centres, housing hundreds of multinational corporations
in a forest of skyscrapers. The smaller emirates of Sharjah (Al-Shāriqah),
ʿAjmān, Umm al-Qaywayn, and Raʾs al-Khaymah also occupy the peninsula,
whose protrusion north toward Iran forms the Strait of Hormuz linking the
Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman. The federation’s seventh member, Al-Fujayrah,
faces the Gulf of Oman and is the only member of the union with no frontage
along the Persian Gulf.
Historically the domain of individual Arab clans and families, the region
now comprising the emirates also has been influenced by Persian culture owing
to its close proximity to Iran, and its porous maritime borders have for centuries
invited migrants and traders from elsewhere. In the 18th century, Portugal and
the Netherlands extended their holdings in the region but retreated with the
growth of British naval power there; following a series of truces with Britain in
the 19th century, the emirates united to form the Trucial States (also called
Trucial Oman or the Trucial Sheikhdoms). The states gained autonomy following
World War II (1939–45), when the trucial states of Bahrain and Qatar declared
independent statehood. The rest were formally united in 1971, with the city of
Abu Dhabi serving as the capital. The stability of the federation has since been
tested by rivalries between the families governing the larger states of Abu Dhabi
and Dubai, though external events such as the Persian Gulf War (1990–91) and
an ongoing territorial dispute with Iran have served to strengthen the emirates’
political cohesion.
The emirates comprise a mixed environment of rocky desert, coastal

plains and wetlands, and waterless mountains. The seashore is a haven for
migratory waterfowl and draws birdwatchers from all over the world; the
country’s unspoiled beaches and opulent resorts also have drawn international
travelers. Standing at a historic and geographic crossroads and made up of
diverse nationalities and ethnic groups, the United Arab Emirates present a
striking blend of ancient customs and modern technology, of cosmopolitanism
and insularity, and of wealth and want. The rapid pace of modernization of the
emirates prompted travel writer Jonathan Raban to note of the capital: “The
condition of Abu Dhabi was so evidently mint that it would not have been
surprising to see adhering to the buildings bits of straw and polystyrene from the
crates in which they had been packed.”
The United Arab Emirates is slightly smaller in area than Portugal. It is

bordered by Saudi Arabia to the west and south and by Oman to the east and
northeast. The precise borders of the country have remained a matter of dispute.
Despite a 1974 secret agreement between the United Arab Emirates and Saudi
Arabia said to have resolved their three border disputes, the agreement’s legal
standing is unclear. The United Arab Emirates claims a strip of coastline that
borders Qatar to the northwest, which Saudi Arabia claims was ceded to it in the
1974 agreement. It likewise disputes Saudi claims over the Shaybah oil field to
the south, while Saudi Arabia (as well as Oman) has at times challenged the
emirates’ claim on oases around the city of Al-ʿAyn. Since the early 1990s,
moreover, the emirates have been in a dispute with Iran over the ownership of
three islands—Abū Mūsā and Greater and Lesser Tunb (Ṭunb al-Kubrā and Ṭunb
al-Ṣughrā).
Nearly the entire country is desert, containing broad areas of sand. Some
of the world’s largest sand dunes are located east of ʿArādah in the oases of Al-
Liwāʾ. Important oases are at Al-ʿAyn about 100 miles (160 km) east of Abu
Dhabi. Along the eastern portion of the Musandam Peninsula, the northern
extension of the Ḥajar Mountains (also shared by Oman) offers the only other
major relief feature; elevations rise to about 6,500 feet (2,000 metres) at their
highest point. The Persian Gulf coast is broken by shoals and dotted with islands
that offer shelter to small vessels. There are, however, no natural deepwater
harbours; both Dubai’s Port Rāshid and the gigantic Port Jebel Ali, 20 miles (32
km) southwest of Dubai city, are man-made, as are major ports in Abu Dhabi,
Sharjah, and Raʾs al-Khaymah. The coast of the Gulf of Oman is more regular
and has three natural harbours—Dibā, Khawr Fakkān, and Kalbā.
Desert sand dunes, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
Drainage
The United Arab Emirates has no perennial streams nor any regularly
occurring bodies of surface water. Precipitation, what little falls, is drained from
the mountains in the form of seasonal wadis that terminate in inland salt flats, or
sabkhahs, whose drainage is frequently blocked by the country’s constantly
shifting dunes. In the far west the Maṭṭī Salt Flat extends southward into Saudi
Arabia, and coastal sabkhahs, which are occasionally inundated by the waters of
the Persian Gulf, lie in the areas around Abu Dhabi.
Climate
The climate is hot and humid along the coast and is hotter still, but dry, in
the interior. Rainfall averages only 4 to 6 inches (100 to 150 mm) annually,
though it fluctuates considerably from year to year. The average January
temperature is 64 °F (18 °C), while in July the temperature averages 91 °F (33
°C). Summertime highs can reach 115 °F (46 °C) on the coast and 120 °F (49
°C) or more in the desert. In midwinter and early summer, winds known as the
shamāl (Arabic: “norther”) blow from the north and northwest, bearing dust and
sand.
Plant and animal life
Because of the desert climate, vegetation is scanty and largely limited to

the low shrubs that offer forage to nomadic herds, but millions of trees, notably
mangroves, have been planted in Abu Dhabi and have provided habitats for
various species. In the oases, date palms are raised together with alfalfa
(lucerne). Fruits are grown, and the Al-ʿAyn oases east of Abu Dhabi are known
for their mangoes. Animal life includes domesticated goats, sheep, and camels,
together with cattle and poultry, which were introduced in more recent times.
Wildlife consists of predators such as the caracal, sand cat (Felis margarita), and
the Ruppell’s
The largest of these emirates, Abu Dhabi (Abū Ẓaby), which comprises
more than three-fourths of the federation’s total land area, is the centre of its oil
industry and borders Saudi Arabia on the federation’s southern and eastern
borders. The port city of Dubai, located at the base of the mountainous
Musandam Peninsula, is the capital of the emirate of Dubai (Dubayy) and is one
of the region’s most vital commercial and financial centres, housing hundreds of
multinational corporations in a forest of skyscrapers. The smaller emirates of
Sharjah (Al-Shāriqah), ʿAjmān, Umm al-Qaywayn, and Raʾs al-Khaymah also
occupy the peninsula, whose protrusion north toward Iran forms the Strait of
Hormuz linking the Persian Gulf to the Gulf of Oman. The federation’s seventh
member, Al-Fujayrah, faces the Gulf of Oman and is the only member of the
union with no frontage along the Persian Gulf.
Historically the domain of individual Arab clans and families, the region
now comprising the emirates also has been influenced by Persian culture owing
to its close proximity to Iran, and its porous maritime borders have for centuries
invited migrants and traders from elsewhere. In the 18th century, Portugal and
the Netherlands extended their holdings in the region but retreated with the
growth of British naval power there; following a series of truces with Britain in
the 19th century, the emirates united to form the Trucial States (also called
Trucial Oman or the Trucial Sheikhdoms). The states gained autonomy following
World War II (1939–45), when the trucial states of Bahrain and Qatar declared
independent statehood. The rest were formally united in 1971, with the city of
Abu Dhabi serving as the capital. The stability of the federation has since been
tested by rivalries between the families governing the larger states of Abu Dhabi
and Dubai, though external events such as the Persian Gulf War (1990–91) and
an ongoing territorial dispute with Iran have served to strengthen the emirates’
political cohesion.
The emirates comprise a mixed environment of rocky desert, coastal

plains and wetlands, and waterless mountains. The seashore is a haven for
migratory waterfowl and draws birdwatchers from all over the world; the
country’s unspoiled beaches and opulent resorts also have drawn international
travelers. Standing at a historic and geographic crossroads and made up of
diverse nationalities and ethnic groups, the United Arab Emirates present a
striking blend of ancient customs and modern technology, of cosmopolitanism
and insularity, and of wealth and want. The rapid pace of modernization of the
emirates prompted travel writer Jonathan Raban to note of the capital: “The
condition of Abu Dhabi was so evidently mint that it would not have been
surprising to see adhering to the buildings bits of straw and polystyrene from the
crates in which they had been packed.”
The official language of the United Arab Emirates is Arabic. Modern

Standard Arabic is taught in schools, and most native Emiratis speak a dialect of
Gulf Arabic that is generally similar to that spoken in surrounding countries. A
number of languages are spoken among the expatriate community, including
various dialects of Pashto, Hindi, Balochi, and Persian. English is also widely
spoken.
About three-fifths of the population is Muslim, of which roughly four-fifths

belong to the Sunni branch of Islam; Shīʿite minorities exist in Dubai and
Sharjah. There are also small but growing numbers of Christians and Hindus in
the country.
Settlement patterns and demographic trends
The population of the United Arab Emirates is concentrated primarily in

cities along both coasts, although the interior oasis settlement of Al-ʿAyn has
grown into a major population centre as well. Several emirates have exclaves
within other emirates.
The federation’s birth rate is one of the lowest among the Persian Gulf
states, and the infant mortality rate has decreased substantially. Because of the
large number of foreign workers, more than two-thirds of the population is male
and more than three-fourths of the population is younger than 45 years of age.
The country’s death rate is well below the world average, and the average life
expectancy is about 79 years. The major causes of death are cardiovascular
disease, accidents and poisonings, and cancer.
Economy
The federation’s economy is dominated by the petroleum produced

primarily in the Abu Dhabi emirate. The wealthiest of the emirates, Abu Dhabi
contains one of the largest concentrations of the world’s proven oil reserves and
contributes a significant portion of the national budget. The emirate of Dubai,
whose economy is centred more on business than on oil, serves as a commercial
and financial hub for the region and leads the country in economic
diversification.
Agriculture and fishing
Agricultural production—centred largely in the emirates of Raʾs al-

Khaymah and Al-Fujayrah, in the two exclaves of ʿAjmān, and at Al-ʿAyn—has
expanded considerably through the increased use of wells and pumps to provide
water for irrigation. However, agriculture contributes only a small fraction of
gross domestic product (GDP) and employs less than one-tenth of the workforce.
Dates are a major crop, as are tomatoes, cucumbers, and eggplants, and the
United Arab Emirates is nearly self-sufficient in fruit and vegetable production.
The country also produces enough eggs, poultry, fish, and dairy products to
meet its own needs but must import most other foodstuffs, notably grains. The
Arid Lands Research Centre at Al-ʿAyn experiments with raising crops in a desert
environment. Most commercial fishing is concentrated in Umm al-Qaywayn, and
the emirates have one of the largest fishing sectors in the Arab world.
Resources and power
Oil was discovered in Abu Dhabi in 1958, and the government of that
emirate owns a controlling interest in all oil-producing companies in the
federation through the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC). Abu Dhabi is
responsible for about 95 percent of the country’s oil production, and production
of petroleum and natural gas contributes about one-third of the nation’s GDP,
even though the oil and gas sector employs only a tiny fraction of the workforce.
The largest petroleum concessions are held by an ADNOC subsidiary, Abu Dhabi
Marine Operating Company (ADMA-OPCO), which is partially owned by British,
French, and Japanese interests. One of the main offshore fields is located in
Umm al-Shāʾif. Al-Bunduq offshore field is shared with neighbouring Qatar but is
operated by ADMA-OPCO. A Japanese consortium operates an offshore rig at Al-
Mubarraz, and other offshore concessions are held by American companies.
Onshore oil concessions are held by another ADNOC company, the Abu Dhabi
Company for Onshore Oil Operations, which is likewise partially owned by
American, French, Japanese, and British interests. Other concessions also are
held by Japanese companies.
Petroleum production in Dubai began in 1969. There are offshore oil fields
at Ḥaql Fatḥ, Fallah, and Rāshid. The emirate long maintained a controlling
interest in its oil fields and took full control of oil production in 2007. At its peak,
Dubai produced about one-sixth of the country’s total output of petroleum.
Production dwindled to a negligible amount, however, as the emirate diversified
its economy. Sharjah began producing oil in 2007. At its peak, Dubai produced
about one-sixth of the country’s total output of petroleum. Production dwindled
to a negligible amount, however, as the emirate diversified its economy. Sharjah
began producing oil in 1974; another field, predominantly yielding natural gas,
was discovered six years later. In 1984 oil production began off the shore of
Raʾs al-Khaymah, in the Persian Gulf.
The federation’s natural gas reserves are among the world’s largest, and
most fields are found in Abu Dhabi. In the late 1990s the United Arab Emirates
began investing heavily to develop its natural gas sector, both for export and to
fire domestic thermal power plants.
Because it relies on energy-intensive technologies such as water desalination and
air-conditioning and because subsidies on fuel have encouraged wasteful energy
use, the United Arab Emirates has one of the world’s highest per capita rates of
energy consumption. Despite its large hydrocarbon reserves, rapidly increasing
domestic demand driven by population growth and industrialization in the first
decade of the 21st century forced the emirates to import natural gas and to draw
upon petroleum reserves at a fraction of the export price.
To safeguard future hydrocarbon production, the federation began to

explore other sources for domestic energy. In 2009 the emirates contracted the
Korean Electric Power Company to build four nuclear reactors in the country by
2020. Abu Dhabi and Dubai also began to invest in renewable energy. In 2013
Abu Dhabi opened what, at the time, was one of the world’s largest solar power
plants, a 100-megawatt facility capable of powering up to 20,000 homes.
Manufacturing
The emirates have attempted to diversify their economy to avoid complete

dependence on oil, and manufacturing has played a significant part in that effort.
A petrochemical industrial complex has been established at Al-Ruways, 140 miles
(225 km) southwest of Abu Dhabi city, with a petroleum refinery, a gas
fractionation plant, and an ammonia and urea plant. Dubai’s revenues have been
invested in projects such as a dry dock and a trade centre; its first airport was
expanded in the 2000s, while a second airport was built near the port of Jebel
Ali, and additional hotels have been built, including the striking Burj al-ʿArab
(“Tower of the Arabs”), which opened in the late 1990s. The Burj Khalifa
(“Khalifa Tower”) skyscraper in Dubai city became the world’s tallest building and
the tallest freestanding structure when it opened in 2010. Sharjah has built a
cement plant, a plastic-pipe factory, and paint factories. Manufacturing accounts
for less than one-tenth of GDP in the country overall Finance
The Central Bank of the United Arab Emirates was established in 1980,
with Dubai and Abu Dhabi each depositing half of their revenues in the
institution. The bank also issues the UAE dirham, the emirates’ national currency.
There are commercial, investment, development, foreign, and domestic banks as
well as a bankers’ association. In 1991 the worldwide operations of Abu Dhabi’s
Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI), partly owned by the ruling
family, were closed down after corrupt practices were uncovered, and the
emirate subsequently created the Abu Dhabi Free Zone Authority to develop a
new financial centre. The emirates’ first official stock exchange, the Dubai
Financial Market (Sūq Dubayy al-Mālī; DFM), was opened in 2000, followed by
the Dubai International Financial Exchange in 2005.
The United Arab Emirates is a leading force in the development of modern

Islamic finance, financial practices that comply with Sharīʿah laws of transaction.
Dubai Islamic Bank (DIB) was incorporated in 1975 as the world’s first
commercial Islamic bank. As more Islamic banks opened and the popularity of
Islamic finance increased, the government began passing legislation regulating
Islamic finance in 1985. In 2007 the DFM became the first stock exchange to
comply with the standards of Islamic finance. Because the United Arab Emirates
is an international financial and commercial hub, its Islamic financial institutions
have become a particularly attractive market for Islamic organizations worldwide.
Meanwhile, the United Arab Emirates’ geographic location, high traffic in

international business, and liberal business and finance regulations have made
financial institutions in the United Arab Emirates an attractive target for money
laundering, terrorist financing, and other illicit financial activity. This problem is
believed to be exacerbated by the presence of informal financial networks and
practices (known in the Arab world as ḥawālah) originating in the region’s Silk
Road trade networks that predate formal finance regulation. As such, the country
has made significant efforts in the 21st century to tighten regulation, combat
illegal financial activity, and push ḥawālah networks into the formal market.
Trade
Trade has long been important to Dubai and Sharjah. Even before the
discovery of oil, Dubai’s prosperity was assured by its role as the Persian Gulf’s
leading entrepôt. (It was known especially as a route for smuggling gold into
India.) In 1995 the United Arab Emirates joined the World Trade Organization
and since then has developed a number of free-trade zones, technology parks,
and modern ports in order to attract trade. The large free-trade zone of Port
Jebel Ali was developed during the 1980s and has done much to attract foreign
manufacturing industries interested in producing goods for export.
Exports are dominated by petroleum and natural gas. Imports consist

primarily of machinery and transport equipment, gold, precious stones, and
foods. Major trading partners include China, India, Japan, and western European
countries. A large amount of trade is in reexports to neighbouring gulf countries.
Services
The service sector, including public administration, defense, tourism, and

construction, has played an increasing role in the economy since the late 1990s,
especially as the country attempted to attract tourists and foreign businesses. In
order to develop its tourism and business sectors, the government has
encouraged major infrastructure projects, especially construction of
accommodation and transportation systems—hotels, resorts, restaurants, and
airport expansion.
Labor and taxation
Expatriate workers constitute about nine-tenths of the labour force, and

more in some private sector areas. Conditions for these workers often can be
harsh, and at the beginning of the 21st century, the state did not allow workers
to organize. Like other gulf states that depend heavily on foreign workers, the
emirates have attempted to reduce the number of foreign employees—in a
program known as Emiratization—by providing incentives for businesses to hire
Emirati nationals.
In the early 21st century the expatriate labour issue persisted despite
landmark developments. New laws were instituted that ban work during the heat
of the midday hours in summer and that prohibit the use of children (largely
expatriate) as jockeys in camel races. In addition, a number of strikes and
protests in 2005 by unpaid expatriate labourers against a major construction and
development company were resolved in favour of the workers. Early in 2006 the
government announced the drafting of a new law permitting the formation of
unions and wage bargaining; later that year, however, it instead passed a law
permitting the deportation of striking workers, and worker organization remained
illegal. The government gradually granted additional protections and rights to
workers over the years, though it was not until 2017 that the United Arab
Emirates’ labour laws met the minimum standards.
International Labour Organization
There is no income tax in the United Arab Emirates, and corporate taxes
are only levied on oil companies and foreign banks. The bulk of government
revenue is generated from nontax incomes, largely from the sale of petroleum
products, but the government has begun supplementing its revenue with
consumption taxes. An excise tax on carbonated beverages, energy drinks, and
tobacco products was implemented in 2017. In 2018 the United Arab Emirates,
in coordination with other gulf countries, implemented a value-added tax for
most goods and services.
Transportation and telecommunications
An excellent road system, developed in the late 1960s and ’70s, carries
motor vehicles throughout the country and links it to its neighbours. The addition
of a tunnel to the bridges connecting Dubai city and the nearby commercial
centre of Dayrah facilitates the movement of traffic across the small saltwater
inlet that separates them. The cities of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Raʾs al-
Khaymah, Al-Fujayrah, and Al-ʿAyn are served by international airports. A
second airport opened to service Dubai in 2010. The older airport at Dubai is one
of the busiest in the Middle East. The federation has a number of large and
modern seaports, including the facilities at Dubai’s Port Rāshid, which is serviced
by a vast shipyard, and Port Jebel Ali, situated in one of the largest man-made
harbours in the world and one of the busiest ports in the gulf. Of the smaller
harbours on the Gulf of Oman, Sharjah has a modest port north of the city. In
September 2009 the first portion of a remote-controlled rapid-transit metro line—
the gulf region’s first metro system—began operations in Dubai. Additional public
transit projects, including monorail service in Abu Dhabi and linkages to the
Saudi rail networks, have been planned as well. A Hyperloop system is likewise
planned to connect Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The state-controlled Emirates
Telecommunications Corporation, known as Etisalat
Constitutional framework
The highest governmental authority is the Federal Supreme Council, which

is composed of the quasi-hereditary rulers of the seven emirates. The president
and vice president of the federation are elected for five-year terms by the
Supreme Council from among its members. The president appoints a prime
minister and a cabinet. The unicameral legislature, the Federal National Council,
is an advisory body made up of 40 members appointed by the individual
emirates for two-year terms. A provisional constitution was ratified in 1971 and
was made permanent in 1996 by the Supreme Council.
Local government
The United Arab Emirates has a federal system of government, and any
powers not assigned to the federal government by the constitution devolve to
the constituent emirates. Generally, the distribution of power within the federal
system is similar to those in other such systems—for example, the federation
government administers foreign policy, determines broad economic policy, and
runs the social welfare system—and a significant amount of power is exercised at
the individual emirate level, notably in Abu Dhabi and Dubai.
Justice
The constitution calls for a legal code based on Sharīʿah (Islamic law). In
practice, the judiciary blends Western and Islamic legal principles. At the federal
level the judicial branch consists of the Union Supreme Court and several courts
of first instance: the former deals with emirate-federal or inter-emirate disputes
and crimes against the state, and the latter cover administrative, commercial,
and civil disputes between individuals and the federal government. Other legal
matters are left to local judicial bodies.
Political process
On the whole, leadership in each emirate falls to that emirate’s most

politically prominent tribe (an agnatic lineage group composed of a number of
related families), and the paramount leader, the emir, is selected by the notables
of the ruling tribe from among their number—this is usually, but not always, a
son of the previous emir. Each tribe, however, has its own leader, or sheikh, and
a certain degree of political pluralism is necessary to maintain the ruling family’s
position. This is largely facilitated by the institution called the majlis, the council
meeting. During the majlis the leader hears grievances, mediates disputes, and
disperses largesse, and, in theory, anyone under the leader’s rule must be
granted access to the majlis.
There are no political parties in the emirates, and, until the beginning of
the 21st century, no elections were held. An electoral college meets every four
years to select half of the membership of the advisory Federal National Council;
the other half is designated by appointment. Beginning with the 2019 elections,
half of the council members must be women. The electoral college has expanded
rapidly: it consisted of fewer than 7,000 citizens when the first election was held
in 2006; by the third election in 2015 the electoral college included more than
224,000, about one-third of voting-age citizens; and by 2019 the number had
expanded to 337,000 and for the first time included slightly more women than
men.
Security
The emirates’ defense forces were merged in 1976, but the forces in
Dubai and Abu Dhabi have retained some independence. The Supreme Council
has made the right to raise armed forces a power of the national government. In
2006 the Supreme National Security Council, which included the president, prime
minister, and chief of staff of the armed forces, among others, was formed to
deal with the emirates’ security needs. The number of uniformed military
personnel is high for a country the size of the emirates, as is total military
spending per capita. Most personnel are in the army, but the emirates maintain a
small navy and air force, and a large number of expatriates serve in the military.
Health and welfare
Hospital services are free to nationals, and medical services are

concentrated in Dubai and Abu Dhabi, which have numerous hospitals, child
welfare clinics, and other health facilities. In the late 1990s the emirates began
privatizing health care, which led to a significant rise in the number of hospitals
and physicians. The government subsidizes health insurance for its citizens, and
thus public spending on health care has also increased alongside the increase in
privatization.
Housing
A considerable proportion of government spending, at both the federal

and local levels, is devoted to constructing and financing housing and to
developing civil infrastructure such as power, water, and waste removal. The
federation government makes housing available to citizens through direct low-
interest loans, subsidies on rental units, and grants of housing at no charge, and
thousands of Emiratis have taken advantage of these programs.
Education
Education in the emirates is free and mandatory at the primary level for
all children from ages 6 to 12. Secondary education is not compulsory. There are
a number of fine institutions of higher education in the emirates, and both boys
and girls attend public school. Female students far outnumber males at the
United Arab Emirates University, which opened at Al-ʿAyn in 1977, and at the
Higher Colleges of Technology system (1988) throughout the emirates. Zayed
University (1998) was established to provide women with technical education,
though in 2008 it began admitting men as well. Overall, women make up
approximately 70 percent of university graduates. By the 2010s the vast majority
of the population was literate.
Cultural Life
The cultural traditions of the United Arab Emirates are rooted in Islam and
resonate with the wider Arab world, especially with the neighbouring states of
the Persian Gulf. The federation has experienced the impact of Islamic
resurgence, though Islam in the emirates is generally less austere than in Saudi
Arabia. Tribal identities in the United Arab Emirates remain fairly strong, despite
urbanization and the presence of a large expatriate community, and the family is
still considered the strongest and most cohesive social unit.
In several ways, change is apparent in the federation’s cultural life.

Changes in attitudes toward marriage and the employment of women lead the
region. The government takes an active role in the empowerment of women, and
the constitution includes a number of guarantees and protections for women.
Just under half of Emirati women participate in the labour force.
Although few Emiratis retain the lifeways of their forebears—practicing a

nomadic lifestyle or plying the Persian Gulf in search of fish and pearls—many
traditional modes of living continue. The major Islamic holidays, including the
two ʿīds (festivals), Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, are observed among the Muslim
majority, and traditional dress is still the norm. For women, traditional attire
consists of a light chemise known as a dirʿ, which is often worn beneath a more
ornate dress (thawb). Beneath the dress a sirwāl, a type of loose trouser, is
worn. Outside the home or in the presence of strangers, women still cover
themselves with a dark cloak known as an ʿabāyah and cover their heads with a
scarf called a shāl, which may also serve as a veil (ḥijāb or burquʿ). Fabrics are
often delicate, colourful, and highly embroidered, and Emirati women wear a
variety of fine gold and silver jewelry.
The traditional garb for men consists of a long, simple, ankle-length

garment known as a kandūrah or dishdashah (or also thawb). Usually made of
white cotton, the garment may instead be made of a heavier material and in a
variety of colours. The standard head covering is the ghuṭrah, a light scarf
(usually white or white-and-red checkered, also known as a kaffiyeh) held in
place by a black cord of camel hair known as an ʿiqāl. Colour, style, and material
of headwear may vary among groups.
Emirati cuisine reflects the variety of cultural influences that the country
has experienced over the centuries. Hummus, fūl (spiced bean paste), falafel,
and shawarma (broiled meat served on flatbread) are dishes standard to the
Arab world, whereas the influence of Iranian cuisine can be seen in the Emirati
preference for rice as a staple and ingredients such as saffron, cardamom, and
rose water as flavouring in desserts. Among the favorite dishes is makbūs—
poultry, meat, or fish atop a bed of rice spiced with seasonings and dried lime.
As in all countries of the region, lamb and chicken are the preferred meats, and
fresh fruits—including dates, figs, lemons, and limes—and vegetables and
flatbread (khubz) are daily fare. The preferred drink is coffee, served in the
popular fashion—hot, strong, and sweet.
The arts
As is true of other countries of the Arabian Peninsula, traditional arts such

as pottery, weaving, and metalworking occupy a prominent place in cultural life.
The manufacture of handicrafts is an economic mainstay for smaller villages,
providing goods to sell in the souks (open-air markets) that lie at the heart of
small towns and large cities alike. Traditional storytelling remains a much-
admired art form, and Emirati culture, like Arab culture on the whole, esteems
poetry, whether it is classical, contemporary, or the Bedouin vernacular form
called nabaṭī. Traditional music, such as the ḥudāʾ—sung originally by
caravanners while on the trail—is enjoyed alongside popular music from abroad,
and traditional dances such as the ʿayyālah (often called ʿarḍah), a type of
sword dance, are performed on special occasions.
The Ministry of Information and Culture sponsors a number of events

annually, including plays and music festivals, and helps support the numerous
folklore associations in the emirates. The Sharjah Theatre Festival brings
together talent from all seven emirates. Annual international book fairs in
Sharjah and Abu Dhabi cities are highly regarded, and film festivals in the
emirates are gaining in popularity and reputation. The Dubai Air Show has
become a major regional event.
Cultural institutions
Dubai Museum is located in al-Fahīdī Fort and features displays on

Bedouin life, local history, dances, and musical instruments. The fort is also
home to a military museum. Al-ʿAyn is the site of a museum devoted to Bedouin
culture and the emirates’ pre-oil history. Sharjah city features a noted natural
history museum. Dubai city is growing as a centre for regional film, television,
and music production and is home to the Dubai Opera House. Abu Dhabi hosts
the Louvre Abu Dhabi, a museum that leases its name, collection, and expertise
from the Louvre in Paris.
Sports and recreation
Sports are popular in the United Arab Emirates and are strongly supported
by the government. The Ministry of Youth and Sports oversees and encourages
the many groups, clubs, and associations that provide sports-related activities.
Football (soccer) is the most-watched spectator sport, and horse racing also
enjoys widespread popularity. The federation is also a major centre for camel
racing, a traditional sport that became increasingly popular late in the 20th
century, and for falconry, once an important means of hunting. Jujitsu became
popular and widespread in the 21st century, especially because of the patronage
of Abu Dhabi’s ruling Āl Nahyān family. The country hosts many international
sporting events, most notably for golf, jujitsu, tennis, rugby, and boat racing.
The United Arab Emirates made its Olympic debut at the 1984 Summer Games,
and its national football (soccer) team qualified for the World Cup in 1990. Abu
Dhabi began hosting the final Grand Prix of the Formula One World
Championship tournament in 2009. The country hosted the FIFA Club World Cup
in 2018, in which the club from Al-ʿAyn played Real Madrid in the final match,
and hosted the Asian Cup tournament months later in 2019.
Media and publishing
The news media are concentrated in Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah. A
number of daily newspapers are published, in both Arabic and English. Radio and
television programs are broadcast daily from Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, and
Raʾs al-Khaymah, in those same languages.
Domestic politics
Abu Dhabi initiated a movement toward centralization in December 1973,

when several of its former cabinet members took positions with the federal
government. In May 1976 the seven emirates agreed to merge their armed
forces, and in November of that year a provision was added to the constitution
that gave the federal government the right to form an army and purchase
weapons. Conflicts regarding centralization within the government in 1978
prompted Dubai and Raʾs al-Khaymah to refuse to submit their forces to federal
command, and Dubai began purchasing weapons independently. A proposal to
form a federal budget, merge revenues, and eliminate internal boundaries was
rejected by Dubai and Raʾs al-Khaymah, in spite of strong domestic support.
Dubai ended its opposition, however, when its ruler, Sheikh Rāshid ibn Saʿīd al-
Maktūm, was offered the premiership of the federal government; he took office
in July 1979. Sheikh Zāyid ibn Sulṭān al-Nahyān of Abu Dhabi served as president
of the United Arab Emirates from 1971 until his death in 2004, when he was
succeeded by his son Sheikh Khalīfah ibn Zāyid Āl Nahyān as ruler of Abu Dhabi
and president of the emirates. Sheikh Rāshid of Dubai died in 1990, and his
positions as ruler of Dubai and vice president and prime minister of the United
Arab Emirates were assumed, successively, by his sons Sheikh Maktūm ibn
Rāshid al-Maktūm (1990–2006) and, since 2006, Sheikh Muhammad ibn Rāshid
al-Maktūm.
In 2006 the United Arab Emirates held its first elections. A very limited
electoral college was permitted to vote for the selection of half of the
membership of the advisory Federal National Council, the other half of which
would remain designated by appointment.
The booming economy of the United Arab Emirates was slowed by the onset of
the global financial crisis that began in 2008. The impact of the crisis was felt
most in Dubai, where a number of large construction projects were suspended
and real estate values dropped by 50 percent in a year. In late 2009 the
government-run investment company Dubai World announced that it would be
unable to repay its debts on time. A loan of $10 billion from Abu Dhabi at the
end of the year helped Dubai avoid defaulting on its obligations. Three weeks
later, in January 2010, Dubai inaugurated the world’s tallest building—renamed
Burj Khalifa from Burj Dubai after the bailout from Abu Dhabi’s emir Sheikh
Khalīfah. Dubai’s luxury real estate market soon recovered, but some uncertainty
lingered regarding the emirate’s ability to pay off its debts.
The United Arab Emirates responded to the popular uprisings that swept
through much of the Arab world in 2011 by preemptively tightening its control
over political expression. In April 2011, five democracy activists were arrested for
signing an online petition calling for an elected parliament and a constitutional
monarchy. The activists were convicted and sentenced to prison for publicly
insulting the country’s leaders before being pardoned and released in November.
Efforts to suppress dissent continued in 2012 with the passage of new

measures banning criticism of the government in public or on the Internet.
Dozens of democracy activists and members of the Islamist opposition were
arrested and detained without charges over the course of the year. In 2014
moderate Islamist groups, including the influential Iṣlāḥ Association, were
officially banned, the government alleging that the groups had ties to terrorism.
While criticism of the government was suppressed over the years that
followed, the United Arab Emirates also made some efforts to improve the civic
participation of its citizens and the quality of life in the country. Though the
emirs are appointed by their respective tribes, an advisory council has included
representatives elected by an electoral college since 2006. By 2015 the electoral
college had been expanded to include about one-third of voting-age citizens.
Meanwhile, facing international pressure, the country gradually increased
guarantees and protections for its large migrant worker population, finally
meeting the minimum requirements of the International Labour Organization in
2017. Nonetheless, the country remained largely focused on maintaining.
The UAE is a loose federal system consisting of seven emirates,
dominated by Abu Dhabi. Within each emirate, local governments are based on
traditional patriarchal monarchies and ruled by sheikhs from royal families who
long held the leadership position of tribal confederations. Each emirate has its
own local government, the complexity of which varies according to the size and
population of the emirates.
The federal system of the UAE combines traditional and modern elements
of leadership and government and has been responsible for giving the country a
distinct national identity and political stability. Every emirate has a voice in the
civil administration of the country, in both the supreme council and the cabinet,
though the status and power of the powerful emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai
are apparent. Critical decisions, such as approving the federal budget and
choosing the President and Prime Minister, are usually reached by consensus.
Individual emirates reserve considerable power and autonomy in running

their own economies and social systems. The governments are largely in the
hands of royal dynasties and their local allies from other rich and powerful
merchants and business families. In both the federation and the individual
emirates’ governments, there are no genuinely representative political
institutions. Ordinary people are able to communicate their problems to local
leaders by talking to them directly in the traditional consultative forum the
leaders hold regularly, known as the majlis (council)


leaders hold regularly, known as the majlis (council).
The Executive
The executive authority is in the hands of the Federal Supreme Council

(FSC), the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister, and cabinet. The FSC is the
highest constitutional authority and the top policy-making entity. Its members
are the seven rulers of the emirates; the Council elects the President and Vice-
President from amongst them. The FSC has both legislative and executive
powers. It establishes general policies, ratifies federal laws and decrees,
approves the nomination of the Prime Minister by the President, and accepts the
Prime Minister’s resignation. It also relieves him from his post upon the
recommendation of the President. It meets four times a year. The rulers of Abu
Dhabi and Dubai have effective veto powers. If a ruler cannot attend Federal
Supreme Council meetings he may delegate his crown prince to take his seat.
Crown princes and deputy rulers attending meetings when their ruler is present
have no formal role in the Council.
The head of state is the President, who serves a five-year term. The FSC
elects or re-confirms a President already in office. The current President is
Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, who is also the ruler of Abu Dhabi. On 4
November 2004 he succeeded his father, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan –
the first UAE President, often referred to as ‘the father of the nation’ – who had
died two days earlier. In 2009 Sheikh Khalifa’s five-year term as President was
renewed. He is said to be a pro-Western modernizer.
The Vice-President also has a five-year term. He is selected by the

President but needs to be approved by the FSC. The post is currently held by
Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, who is also the ruler of Dubai. Sheikh
Mohammed serves also as Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, who is appointed
by the President, heads the Council of Ministers, or cabinet.
Local government
The relationship between the federal and local governments is laid down
in the Constitution and allows some flexibility in the distribution of authority.
Traditional government still plays an important part in the government of the
UAE, with the institution of the majlis (council) maintaining a role in ensuring
that the people have free access to their rulers. During the majlis the leader
hears grievances, mediates disputes, and disperses largesse. In theory, anyone
under the leader’s rule must be granted access to the majlis.
On the whole, leadership in each emirate falls to that emirate’s most politically
prominent tribe, and the paramount leader, the emir, is selected by the notables
of the ruling tribe from among their number. The choice is usually, but not
always, a son of the previous emir. Each tribe, however, has its own leader, or
sheikh, and a certain degree of political pluralism, as seen in the institution of
the majlis, is necessary to maintain the ruling family’s position.
The Legislative
The UAE has no real elections, no political parties, and no democratic

representative institutions. The country’s leadership and governmental bodies are
either chosen through consultations between the local traditional leaders or
appointed by these officials within the framework of the Constitution. In the
past, legislation came in the form of decrees by the Federal Supreme Council
(FSC).
Federal National Council
A slight change in government was introduced in December 2006, in the

form of limited, indirect elections for the Federal National Council (FNC), an
advisory body that has existed since 1972. The FNC’s functions include
discussing constitutional amendments and draft laws, which may be approved,
amended, or rejected (although the FNC may not submit its own draft laws);
reviewing the annual draft budget of the federation; and debating international
treaties and conventions. The FNC comprises 40 members, eight each from Abu
Dhabi and Dubai, six each from Sharja and Ras al-Khaima, and four each from
Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, and Fujaira. Until 2006 all FNC members were
nominated for two-year terms by the rulers of the respective emirates. Since
then, half of its members have been elected through an electoral college of
6,689 members handpicked by the rulers of the seven emirates, who themselves
nominate the other half. In 2008 the Federal Supreme Council promulgated a
constitutional amendment which extended the term of FNC members from two to
four years.
In the September 2011 indirect elections for the FNC, in the aftermath of
the so-called Arab Spring in 2011, 129,274 Emirati citizens – two thirds of the
adult population, almost 20 times the number in 2006 – now selected by the
National Election Committee established in 2011, were allowed to participate in
the selection of 20 of the 40 FNC candidates. Since then, there have been seven
women on the council, six appointed by the rulers and one elected.
Since 1972, the FNC has completed 14 legislative sessions. According to

the Constitution, federal draft laws have to pass through the FNC for review and
recommendations. Over the years a majority of its recommendations and
amendments have been adopted by the government, and original draft laws
from the cabinet have been amended by the FNC to suit the needs of the citizens
they are supposed to represent.
The Judicial
The country’s legal code is based on a dual system comprising Sharia

(Islamic law) courts and civil courts. (The UAE has not accepted International
Court of Justice jurisdiction.) How each emirate applies this combination of laws
differs. Some, such as Dubai, tend to be more liberal and open, while others,
such as Sharja, are more conservative and guarded. The legal system has yet to
evolve to accommodate the rapid development of the country’s social, economic,
and cultural systems, so much urgently needed legislation comes in the form of
decrees from the ruler or President.
The judiciary, whose independence is guaranteed by the Constitution,
includes the Supreme Court – the highest institution, whose judges are
appointed by the President – and the Courts of First Instance.
In the UAE’s dual system, Sharia courts handle criminal and personal-
status matters, and secular courts handle matters of civil law. Non-Muslims are
tried for criminal offences in Sharia courts, but non-Muslims most often receive
civil penalties at the discretion of the judge, rather than Sharia penalties.
The UAE’s government is criticized for its refusal to abolish the death
penalty, allow migrant workers substantive rights (especially the right of
association), or normalize the situation of stateless people to enable them to
attain full equality and receive such benefits as unconditional access to
employment, health care, and other state benefits. Thirteen death sentences
were handed down by courts in Sharja and Dubai in 2009, but none has been
carried out.
Political Parties
The UAE has a closed political system, with no elections or political

parties. The President appoints the Prime Minister and the cabinet, who manage
the country’s daily affairs. Delegates of the 40-member Federal National Council
are partly appointed, partly elected, through an electoral college hand-picked by
the leaders of the seven emirates every four years; the council serves only as an
advisory body.
Political parties are prohibited in the UAE, and rights of assembly and
association are limited. Independent NGOs are prohibited, and all such
organizations must register with the government and are subject to closure by
the government. Trade unions are illegal. In 2002, the Dubai police created a
human-rights department to monitor prison conditions, rehabilitate prisoners,
and conduct programmes for crime victims, but independent human-rights
groups are not permitted to operate in the UAE.
Bureaucracy
The public sector is one of the largest employers in the UAE, and Emiratis
fill most positions. Some government services can be time-consuming and
cumbersome. The need to process millions of visitors, resident visas, and work
permits, in addition to other daily services (e.g., utilities, phone, Internet
services, car registration) is a major challenge to the system. Many such services
still involve complicated paperwork, stamps, long queues, and multiple visits to
one or several governmental or semi-governmental offices. However, much
improvement has been introduced, in the form of online facilities and
reorganization of some services to make them faster and more efficient, as in the
case of automobile registration.
Bureaucracy is aggravated by the presence of monopolies and the

tendency to centralize some major services, which excludes competitors from the
private sector and reduces the effectiveness and quality of these services. A
classic example of this is the semi-governmental telecommunications corporation
Etisalat, which, until 2007, was the only provider of phone, Internet, and cable
TV services in the country and was widely perceived as inefficient. The creation
of a second semi-governmental company, du, to break Etisalat’s monopoly, has
improved the situation by introducing more competition and choice for residents,
but the improvement has not been drastic. Because government jobs are mostly
open to UAE citizens preferentially, Emirati nationals tend to prefer working
there. Other reasons for this preference include high salaries, excellent benefits
(including pensions), flexible and short working hours, and a relaxed work
environment. As a result, all state sectors (such as the police and armed forces),
governmental ministries (such as Immigration and Naturalization), and semi-
public institutions, such as the telecommunications giant Etisalat – tend to be
overstaffed with UAE citizens.
In addition to poor services, nepotism, and wasta, some of the

bureaucratic problems are caused by the loose centralization of administration
and the lack of uniform procedures that are accepted in all the seven emirates.
Changing jobs and residency from one emirate to another (such as from Dubai to
Abu Dhabi) would normally require a lengthy and complicated process of
changing work permits, sponsors, and residency status.
The UAE, like other countries in the region, suffers from nepotism and
favouritism, especially in the widespread institution of wasta, by which people
get things done through personal connections or the power they enjoy because
of prestige, wealth, or national identity (being a national is a great advantage).
Many services are done efficiently and quickly, but in many cases these are
offered only to certain businesses or for higher-than-normal cost.
Though government services are generally costly, and everything is paid for in
cash, there is relatively little corruption in the sense of bribery or profiteering.
There are, however, occasional high-profile cases of corruption, in which senior
governmental officials and civil servants have been identified as abusing their
positions and have been brought to justice.
The UAE law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the
government generally implements the law effectively. Much government
corruption reportedly occurs at the administrative level. The country has laws
that prevent financial disclosures for public officials, making it difficult to gauge
the extent and depth of possible official corruption.
Given the lack of independence of the country’s courts, it is almost inconceivable
that people in power or connected to the ruling families would ever be
questioned, face legal proceedings, or be punished for corruption.
Introduction


leaders hold regularly, known as the majlis (council).
The Executive
The executive authority is in the hands of the Federal Supreme Council

(FSC), the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister, and cabinet. The FSC is the
highest constitutional authority and the top policy-making entity. Its members
are the seven rulers of the emirates; the Council elects the President and Vice-
President from amongst them. The FSC has both legislative and executive
powers. It establishes general policies, ratifies federal laws and decrees,
approves the nomination of the Prime Minister by the President, and accepts the
Prime Minister’s resignation. It also relieves him from his post upon the
recommendation of the President. It meets four times a year. The rulers of Abu
Dhabi and Dubai have effective veto powers. If a ruler cannot attend Federal
Supreme Council meetings he may delegate his crown prince to take his seat.
Crown princes and deputy rulers attending meetings when their ruler is present
have no formal role in the Council.
The head of state is the President, who serves a five-year term. The FSC
elects or re-confirms a President already in office. The current President is
Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, who is also the ruler of Abu Dhabi. On 4
November 2004 he succeeded his father, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan –
the first UAE President, often referred to as ‘the father of the nation’ – who had
died two days earlier. In 2009 Sheikh Khalifa’s five-year term as President was
renewed. He is said to be a pro-Western modernizer.
The Vice-President also has a five-year term. He is selected by the

President but needs to be approved by the FSC. The post is currently held by
Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, who is also the ruler of Dubai. Sheikh
Mohammed serves also as Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, who is appointed
by the President, heads the Council of Ministers, or cabinet.
Local government
The relationship between the federal and local governments is laid down
in the Constitution and allows some flexibility in the distribution of authority.
Traditional government still plays an important part in the government of the
UAE, with the institution of the majlis (council) maintaining a role in ensuring
that the people have free access to their rulers. During the majlis the leader
hears grievances, mediates disputes, and disperses largesse. In theory, anyone
under the leader’s rule must be granted access to the majlis.
On the whole, leadership in each emirate falls to that emirate’s most

politically prominent tribe, and the paramount leader, the emir, is selected by the
notables of the ruling tribe from among their number. The choice is usually, but
not always, a son of the previous emir. Each tribe, however, has its own leader,
or sheikh, and a certain degree of political pluralism, as seen in the institution of
the majlis, is necessary to maintain the ruling family’s position.
ABEDA - Arab Bank For Economic Development in Africa
AfDB - African Development Bank
AFESD - Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development
AL - Arab League
AMF - Arab Monetary Fund
CAEU - Council of Arab Economic Unit
ESCWA - Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
FAO - Food and Agriculture Oraganization
G-77 - Group of 77
GCC - Gulf Cooperation Council
IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency
IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)
ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization
ICRM - International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
IDA - International Development Association
IDB - Islamic development Bank
IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFC - International Finance Cooperation
IFRCS - International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
IHO - International Hydrographic Organization
ILO - International Labor Organization
IMF - International Monetary Fund
IMO - International Maritime Organization
Inmarsat International Mobile Satellite Organization
Intelsat International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
Interpol International Criminal Police Organization
IOC International Olympic Committee
ISO (correspondent) International Organization for Standardization
ITU International Telecommunication Union

NAM Nonaligned Movement
OAPEC Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries
OIC Organization of the Islamic Conference
OPCW Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
OPEC Organization Petroleum Exporting Countries
United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UPU Universal Postal Union
WHO World Health Organization
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WTO see WToO for World Tourism Organization or WTrO for World Trade
Organization
Freedom Index
According to many human rights organizations, the authorities continue to

restrict freedoms of expression and association through the judiciary system.
Human Rights Watch (HRW), in its 2017 report on the Gulf state, wrote: ‘UAE
residents known to have spoken with international rights groups are at serious
risk of arbitrary detention and imprisonment. The UAE’s 2014 counterterrorism
law provides for the death penalty for people whose activities are found to
“undermine national unity or social peace”, neither of which are defined in the
law.’ Arbitrary detention can also lead to torture and mistreatment, as HRW
reported: ‘A group of United Nations human rights experts, including the special
rapporteur on torture, the special rapporteur on the independence of judges and
lawyers, and the chair of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, criticized the
UAE’s treatment of five Libyan nationals who had been held in arbitrary
detention since 2014. The special rapporteur on torture said he had received
credible information that authorities subjected the men to torture.’
The Gulf Center for Human Rights (GCHR) assesses and monitors on a
daily basis the cases of human rights defenders arbitrarily arrested by the
authorities in the Gulf countries. In the UAE, the cases they are following the
closest are Mohammed al-Roken, a lawyer detained since 2012 who has been
awarded the Ludovic-Trarieux International Human Rights Prize, Osama al-
Najjar, who was supposed to have been released last March 2017, Obaid al-
Zaabi, who was released in December 2017, more than three years after being
found innocent, academic Dr Nasser bin Ghaith, who has been sentenced to ten
years in jail for ‘posting false information’, and Ahmed Mansour, a member of the
GCHR. The defendants are mostly charged with terrorism, if they are charged
with anything at all.
“In March 2017, prominent human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor was
arrested and his whereabouts remain unverified,” Sima Watling, a campaigner
for Amnesty International in the Middle East and North Africa, told Fanack
Chronicle. “He has had no access to a lawyer and has only been allowed two
short family visits. He is a prisoner of conscience. On 17 September 2017, he
was brought to the public prosecution building in Abu Dhabi, where his family
met him briefly for the second time following a first supervised visit on 3 April
2017. Even though the authorities claim that he is being held at Central Prison,
his exact place of detention remains unverified. [He] still has no access to a
lawyer, and since his arrest has been detained in solitary confinement, which
amounts to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment and possibly torture. Amnesty
International fears for his safety.”
Such arrests instill a fear of talking openly, Watling explained: “Prior to his
detention, Ahmed Mansoor was the last human rights defender in the UAE brave
enough to keep speaking about the human rights violations in the country. Since
his detention, information is very difficult to obtain. Over the past couple of
years, the media reporting on cases have stopped mentioning names of
defendants in cases, making it more difficult to follow up on them. This is added
to the fact that people are afraid of speaking out.”
“Even criminals have more rights than activists,” GCHR Executive Director
Khalid Ibrahim told Fanack Chronicle. “Some are arrested just for peaceful
tweets! People are not allowed to talk.” He gave the example of the UAE 94, a
group of academics, rights defenders, social activists and lawyers who are all in
prison for signing a letter calling for more freedom. GCHR issued a report on
torture and abuse in prison in March 2015, based on research and including 150
pages of documentation with the testimonies of 56 detainees, covering incidents
from 2012 to 2014.
“Once the government witnessed the so-called Arab Spring, it got scared
so it put all the defendants in jail, all the people reporting human rights
violations,” Ibrahim added. “It’s a scandal, this country. All defendants should be
released if the UAE wants to be compatible with its public proclamations towards
international relations.”
Amnesty International is also asking for concrete actions with regards to

these prisoners, and full cooperation with the United Nations human rights
mechanism, by extending an invitation to the special rapporteur on the situation
of human rights defenders to conduct visits without restriction on duration and
scope, and ensure no one is arbitrarily arrested or detained. “The human rights
situation has deteriorated in the UAE despite the authorities claiming the
contrary,” Watling said. “The authorities continue to arbitrarily restrict freedoms
of expression and association, using criminal defamation and anti-terrorism laws
to detain, prosecute, convict and imprison government critics. The international
community should stop being impressed by the glamour and glitz and putting
economic interests first.” So far, the UAE has not addressed these concerns or
responded to the accusations made by rights organizations.
Some of the UAE 94 members were accused of setting up the Muslim

Brotherhood movement in the UAE, a charge the group has always denied. The
UAE has come down hard on alleged and actual members of the Muslim
Brotherhood, fearing its (quasi-) democratic ambitions and opposition to the
royal families currently in power. Dr Azzam Tamimi, a British Palestinian activist,
said, “The UAE considers the Muslim Brotherhood to be a terrorist organization;
they don’t accept anything related to them, going so far as to expel non-UAE
citizens connected with the organization and jailing the others, even torturing
them.” He added, “Mohammed bin Zayed [crown prince of Abu Dhabi] thinks it’s
his holy war to defeat the Muslim Brothers, because the UAE feels threatened by
the Arab Spring and any Islamic political party taking power after it. They are
concerned the same thing that happened in Tunisia and Egypt would happen
there too. But now, the Muslim Brothers have been nearly eradicated in the
UAE.”
Most countries with ties to the UAE seem to have turned a blind eye when
it comes to human rights violations. The United Kingdom, for example, has
signed up for a collaborative and extensive arts programme with the UAE, which
critics say is as much about lubricating the easy flow of capital between the two
countries. France, meanwhile, has been accused of ignoring the fate of migrant
workers during the construction of an outpost of the Louvre museum in Abu
Dhabi. Although decrees were issued in 2016 to establish proper rules for
contract termination, migrant workers remain at great risk under the kafala or
visa sponsorship system that ties workers to their employers and is prone to
abuse.
Education
The Education System in UAE – School Structure and Admissions
UAE Education System
In the UAE, education is compulsory for all Emiratis children aged five and
above, including expat residents. Primary and secondary education in state
institutions is provided free for every UAE national up to the age of 18.
The UAE education system is a four-tier system.
Nursery Education – Nursery education in Dubai begins at a tender age

with children of eighteen months to two years getting admitted to nursery
schools. Basic English language speaking skills are developed in students of this
age group.
Kindergarten Education – Children of four to five years are admitted to
Kindergarten where they get taught various subjects like English, Arabic,
Mathematics, Music, and Art. At this level ‘Religion’ is also part of the syllabus
and students are taught their respective religion.
Primary Education – Students admitted to primary school are generally around

six years. English is the main language of instruction in most primary schools.
However, many other schools teach in Arabic and some in foreign languages
such as Hindi, French as well Russian.
Secondary Education – After completing primary school, students move to

secondary or high schools. There are two kinds of high schools in Dubai, the
ordinary schools that focus on academic subjects and the technical schools which
focus on imparting specific skills in students.
Although the Emirates have several excellent accredited universities and

other tertiary education institutions like the United Arab Emirates (UAE)
University and Zayed University, most expatriates prefer to send their children
back to their native country or Western nations such as Australia and U.K for
higher education.
But the UAE Ministry of Education is taking great strides in overhauling the
education system to cater specifically for the high percentage of expatriate
families that calls the Emirates home. It has received international recognition for
its efforts to move to smart learning strategies via the Mohammed Bin Rashid
Smart Learning Program (MBRSLP)
Continuing the technology-in-education focus is the Vision 2021 National

Agenda, through which the UAE seeks to develop an excellent education system
by completely transforming the current education system and teaching methods.
The National Agenda aims for all schools and tertiary institutions as well as
students to be equipped with Smart systems as a basis for all teaching methods,
projects and research.
The new UAE education model envisages internationally accredited

bilingual teachers to cater to the growing UAE population and expatriates moving
to the Emirates.
Popular Schools in UAE
There are many international schools in UAE to meet the demand for education
by the increasing number of expatriate communities. These schools offer
different syllabi ranging from Indian CBSE, Indian Certificate of Secondary
Education ICSE, A-level programs, to the British General Certificate of Secondary
Education GCSE, as well as International Baccalaureate (IB). The most popular
schools for expatriates in Dubai include:
Dubai College
Dubai English Speaking Private College
Dubai International Academy
Gems Dubai American Academy
Gems Jumeirah Primary School
Gems Modern Academy
Gems Royal Dubai School
Gems Wellington International School
Jumeirah College
Jumeirah English Speaking School
Indian Schools in Dubai
With a significant percentage of Indian expatriates residing in Dubai, there

are several Indian schools as well in Dubai’s education sector. These are some of
the most popular Indian schools with the Indian expatriate community in Dubai.
The Indian High School – The Indian High School was started in 1961 as the
first school to incorporate Indian syllabus in its curriculum. It is affiliated to the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and has been awarded outstanding
ratings by Dubai’s Knowledge Human Development Authority (KHDA).
Delhi Private School – Also known as DPS, the Delhi Private School, is one of
the best and the most sought-after Indian Schools in Dubai. DPS imparts CBSE
based curriculum to the pupils.
GEMS Modern Academy – GEMS Modern Academy is another top Indian

school in Dubai. The school was started in 1986. It is affiliated to the Council for
the Indian School of Certificate Examinations.
GEMS Our Own English High School – Founded in 1968, the OOEHS is
among the oldest educational providers in Dubai that still maintains its popularity
among the Indian expatriates. The school is affiliated with the Central Board of
Secondary Education.
Other Indian schools that continue to attract Indian expatriates due to the
quality of their education are The Millennium School, Ambassador School,
Rajagiri International School, Springdales and JSS International.
Documents for UAE School Admission
A transfer certificate or letter of recommendation from the student’s

previous school. Some schools may require your child to compete in an entrance
exam and to go through an interview. (Please check with the individual schools
in Dubai for exact details since requirements may differ between schools, age
groups, and nationality).
The type of curriculum, style of teaching, and language are important

deciding factors for expat parents when looking for a school. Once your child is
admitted to a school in UAE, it may be a good idea to hire a private tutor,
especially during the initial months, to help them adjust to the new schooling
environment.
The search for the perfect online tutor or private tutor for your child is
now easier than ever. Simply register with MyPrivateTutorand search for a tutor.
Or you could post a tuition job and have prospects contact you, and that too for
free.
In recent years, a large number of Shia Muslim expatriates have been

deported from the UAE,Lebanese Shia families have been deported for their
alleged sympathy for Hezbollah. According to some organizations, more than
4,000 Shia expats have been deported from the UAE in recent years.
The United Arab Emirates ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all
forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 2004. This Convention
regards violence against women as a form of discrimination and calls on
participating governments to put measures in place to combat violence in all
forms, be it domestic or public. The UAE regularly participates in and hosts
international and GCC conferences on women's issues. The UAE has signed
several other international treaties on protecting the rights of women. Among
these are the Convention on the Rights of a Child, the Hours of Work (Industry)
Convention, the Equal Remuneration Convention, the Conventions Concerning
Employment of Women During the Night and the Minimum Age Convention.
The 2015 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) status report

on Millennium Development Goals noted that the state legislations in the UAE do
not discriminate on the basis of gender with respect to education, employment
or the quality of services provided.
Through several initiatives women in the UAE are playing an increasingly

important role in the economy, politics and technology and are viewed by some
as leaders of gender equality in the Gulf region.
Discrimination in Personal Status Code
Male guardianship in the UAE prevents women from making autonomous

decisions about marriage. Article 39 of the Personal Status Code states that a
male guardian must conclude any marriage contract a woman enters into and
has the power to request an annulment of the marriage. Men on the other hand
can marry up to four women. Article 56 makes it obligatory for women to "obey"
their husbands.
The law in the UAE provides that a man may unilaterally divorce his wife,
whereas a woman who wishes to seek a divorce must apply for a court order
which is only granted on limited grounds.[174] These include failure of the
husband to provide maintenance, his disappearance, or sexual desertion of his
wife, or because he has been sentenced to imprisonment for a term that exceeds
three years.[175]
There is an alternative for women to dissolve their marriage found under

article 110 of the Personal Status Code, or khul', if the husband agrees to it in
return for a financial settlement, however this means a woman relinquishes her
right to the mahr – or the dowry she received as part of the marriage contract.
As to custody of children, women are considered physical guardians, they

have the right to custody up to the age of 13 for girls and 10 for boys. But if a
woman chooses to remarry she automatically forfeits her right to custody of her
children.
Furthermore, under article 71, women who leave their husbands can be
ordered to return to their marital home.
Violence against women
Marriage
In one case the Federal Court sanctioned a husband's beating of his wife
so long as he did not leave physical marks, and in another case a man was
ordered to pay a fee for taking it too far by leaving physical injuries on his
beaten wife.
Furthermore, there is growing concern at the UAE's lack of action against

domestic violence. Human Rights Watch has documented three cases where it
was alleged that police discouraged UK nationals from reporting cases of
domestic violence.
A married woman in the UAE is entitled to personal financial support from

her husband regardless if she has a job or not which is used for personal
spending. However, she can lose her right to personal financial support from her
husband if she refuses sexual relations with him without a valid excuse.
Sexual assault and harassment
Women subjected to sexual assault crimes face several obstacles in

seeking justice. They will often face zina charges if they report a crime
committed against them. Alicia Gali was imprisoned for 8 months for sex outside
of marriage after reporting an assault by her co-workers.[180] A Norwegian
woman was jailed for 16 months for reporting a rape before being pardoned and
returned home.
The credibility of the victim's allegations are called into question by the
police and Courts will enquire as to whether alcohol was involved, whether the
alleged perpetrator was known, and whether the victim resisted the attack.
Migrant workers
According to the International Labour Organization there are 146,000

female migrant domestic workers employed in the UAE. In 2014 a Human Rights
Watch report spoke to domestic workers who complained about abuse and not
being paid due earnings, getting rest periods or days off and excessive
workloads as well as documented cases of psychological, physical and sexual
abuse.[183] The report documents how the visa sponsorship system, or kafala,
and the lack of labour protections leaves migrant workers exposed to abuse.
The kafala system ties a migrant worker to their employers, who act as
their sponsors and makes it difficult for them to change employers. If a domestic
worker attempts to leave her sponsor before the end of her contract without her
sponsor's approval she will be deemed to have "absconded" which usually results
in fines and deportation.
Federal law No.8 excludes domestic workers from labour laws and the
environment which they work in is not regulated by the Ministry of Labour. This
means domestic migrant workers have fewer rights than other migrant workers.
In 2012 the government stated that the cabinet had approved a bill on domestic
workers, however, Human Rights Watch has received no response to requests to
obtain a draft.
In January 2016, Amnesty international said UAE government continues to

violate rights of migrant workers in the country. The international organization
said workers have been tied with Kafalah system and denied collective
bargaining rights. Amnesty also said that women workers from Asia and Africa
are explicitly excluded from labour law protections and particularly vulnerable to
serious abuses, including forced labour and human trafficking.
In March 2019, the Human Rights Watch reported that eight Lebanese
nationals have been detained by the Emirati authorities on the accusations of
terrorism charges, without any evidence. The defendants have been held in
prolonged solitary confinement in an unknown location for more than a year,
without any access to lawyers and family members. The detainees have also
been forced to sign on blank papers while some of them were blindfolded.
In January 2020, Emirati employers were reported to have been hiring the
Indian migrant workers on tourist visas, exploiting them and leaving them
helpless with illegal status. Recruiters in the UAE chose visit visas because they
are cheap and quickly available than the work permits.
Employment
Many women are in paid employment in the UAE, however articles 27, 29
and 34 of the Labour Law restrict women from working at night, working a
hazardous, arduous, physically or morally detrimental job or any other work that
is not specifically approved by the Ministry of Labour, and working without the
consent of her husband.
In one case, Human Rights Watch documented that a woman who had been
physically abused by her husband was in breach of the law by taking up
employment without her husband's approval.
Despite this, women's employment in the labour market has risen

significantly and in the public sector women make up 66% of employees, with
30% of them in high level positions of responsibility.
The UAE cabinet is made up of 27.5% women, all of whom play key roles
in supporting innovation in the country with results indicating that the UAE is a
new hub for women in technology.[192][193] Women represent 50 percent of
scientists in STEM programmes at UAE universities and female nationals in the
nuclear sector have tripled between 2014 and 2015.
Political affairs
In 2004 the first woman was appointed as minister, Lubna Al Qasimi.[195]

In 2006, in the first parliamentary elections, the first woman was elected to the
National Federal Council and in 2016, Noura Al Kaabi was named Minister of
state for the NFC. Reem Al Hashimi and Shamma Al Mazrui are two other female
ministers.
In addition to this the UAE is one of only two countries in the Gulf that
permits women to hold the position of a judge or prosecutor, with Bahrain being
the first country in the region to elect a female judge in 2006.
Abortion
Under article 340 of the Penal Code abortion is illegal in the UAE except
where a woman's life is at risk or the unborn child has a genetic condition that
will prove to be fatal.[198] A woman who is found to have undergone an
abortion can face a penalty of up to one year in prison and a fine up to
Dh10,000.[199] Women that enter hospital seeking treatment for a miscarriage
can be accused of attempted abortion if they are unmarried.
Education
Education has been a prime area of growth in the whole Gulf region.
Primary school completion rates have grown by 15% for girls and the UAE, as
well as Qatar, have the highest female-to-male ratio of university enrolments
worldwide. 77% of Emirati women enrol in higher education after secondary
school and make up 70% of all university graduates in the UAE.
Traditionally women were encouraged to pursue female disciplines such

as education and health care but this has changed recently with surges in areas
such as technology and engineering. The UAE currently has four women fighter
pilots and thirty trained females in the nation's special security forces.[202] In
September 2014, the UAE opened the region's first military college for women,
Khawla bint Al Azwar Military School. The state-of-the-art military college
provides world-class training, physical fitness sessions and leadership
development.
Migrants, particularly migrant workers, make up a majority (approximately

80%) of the resident population of the UAE, and account for 90% of its
workforce.[203] They generally lack rights associated with citizenship and face a
variety of restrictions on their rights as workers.[204][205] There are reports of
undocumented Emiratis who, because of their inability to be recognized as full
citizens, receive no government benefits and have no labour rights. These
stateless Emiratis – also known as bidun – either migrated to the UAE before
independence or were natives who failed to register as citizens.[206] In addition,
there are various incidents where local individuals have ill-treated people from
overseas, just on the basis of nationality or race.
Emiratis receive favorability in employment via the Emiratisation program

forcing companies by law to limit the number of migrant workers in a company.
This is done for the purposes of stabilizing the labor market and protecting the
rights of this group as a minority in their own country. At the same time,
however, due to the welfare benefits of the UAE government, many Emiratis are
reluctant to take up low paying jobs especially those in the private sector; private
sector employers are also generally more inclined to hire overseas temporary
workers as they are cheaper and can be retrenched for various reasons, for
example, if they go on strike Most UAE locals also prefer government jobs and
consider private sector jobs to be below them.
Migrants, mostly of South Asian origin, constitute 42.5% of the UAE's

workforce[213] and have reportedly been subject to a range of human rights
abuses. Workers have sometimes arrived in debt to recruitment agents from
home countries and upon arrival were made to sign a new contract in English or
Arabic that pays them less than had originally been agreed, although this is
illegal under UAE law.
Further to this, some categories of workers have had their passports

withheld by their employer. This practice, although illegal, is to ensure that
workers do not abscond or leave the country on un-permitted trips.[215] In
2012, a workers' camp in Sonapur, Dubai had their water cut for 20 days and
electricity for 10 days, as well as no pay for three months. They were told that
they had been forewarned that the lease was about to expire, and their option
was to go to the Sharjah camp, which the workers did not want to do because it
was "very dirty and [had] a foul smell.
In September 2003 the government was criticised by Human Rights Watch

for its inaction in addressing the discrimination against Asian workers in the
emirate.
In 2004, the United States Department of State has cited widespread

instances of blue collar labour abuse in the general context of the United Arab
Emirates.
in September 2004 that "local newspapers often carry stories of

construction workers allegedly not being paid for months on end. They are not
allowed to move jobs and if they leave the country to go home they will almost
certainly lose the money they say they are owed. The names of the construction
companies concerned are not published in the newspapers for fear of offending
the often powerful individuals who own them.".
In December 2005 the Indian consulate in Dubai submitted a report to the

Government of India detailing labour problems faced by Indian expatriates in the
emirate. The report highlighted delayed payment of wages, substitution of
employment contracts, premature termination of services and excessive working
hours as being some of the challenges faced by Indian workers in the city. The
consulate also reported that 109 Indian blue collar workers committed suicide in
the UAE in 2006.
In March 2006, NPR reported that workers "typically live eight to a room,
sending home a portion of their salary to their families, whom they don't see for
years at a time." Others report that their salary has been withheld to pay back
loans, making them little more than indentured servants.
In 2007, the falling dollar meant workers were unable to service debts and
the incidence of suicides among Indian workers had reportedly been on the
increase.
Human Rights Watch reported issues during construction of Louvre Abu

Dhabi museum including the confiscation of workers passports resulting in forced
labour conditions.[223] High "recruitment loans" paid by migrant workers to
construction companies still had not been repaid as of 2019, according to
government-paid monitors. 86% of these fees were over $2000.
On 21 March 2006, tensions boiled over at the construction site of the

Burj Khalifa, as workers upset over low wages and poor working conditions
rioted, damaging cars, offices, computers, and construction tools. A Dubai
Interior Ministry official said the rioters caused approximately US$1 million in
damage. On 22 March most workers returned to the construction site but refused
to work. Workers building a new terminal at Dubai International Airport went on
strike in sympathy.
A strike by foreign workers took place in October 2007. Many were

arrested, but almost all of them were released some days later.
Government action
In the past, the UAE government has denied any kind of labor injustices
and has stated that the accusations by Human Rights Watch were misguided.
Towards the end of March 2006, the government announced steps to allow
construction unions. UAE labour minister Ali al-Kaabi said, "Laborers will be
allowed to form unions."[citation needed]
The strikes and negative media attention provided exposure of this
regional problem and in 2008 the UAE government decreed and implemented a
"midday break" during summer for construction companies, ensuring laborers
were provided several hours to escape the summer heat. Illegal visa overstayers
were assured amnesty and even repatriated to their home countries at the
expense of friends, embassies or charities.
In July 2013, a video was uploaded onto YouTube, which depicted a local
driver hitting an expatriate worker, following a road related incident. Using part
of his head gear, the local driver whips the expatriate and also pushes him
around, before other passers-by intervene. A few days later, Dubai Police
announced that both, the local driver and the person who filmed the video, have
been arrested. It was also revealed that the local driver was a senior UAE
government official, although the exact government department is not known.
[229] The video once again brings into question the way that lower classes of
foreign workers are treated. Police in November 2013, also arrested a US citizen
and some UAE citizens, in connection with a YouTube parody video which
allegedly portrayed Dubai in bad light. The parody video was shot in areas of
Satwa and depicted gangs learning how to fight using simple weapons, including
shoes, the aghal, etc.
In November 2013, there was another incident involving an American

broadcast professional whom after obtaining a business license from the UAE
government, started an Internet music station but his ex Emirati manager used
his status and connections to not only block the American website and stream,
but to submit a false report to the authorities, have the American citizen
arrested, jailed for 10 days, and have his passport taken away for 10 months
without ever charging him. The American citizen found a way to escape Dubai
and after a perilous journey in August 2014, safely made it back to the U.S.
[citation needed]During the UN Universal Periodic Review (UPR) Pre-session of
2017 addressing the human rights violation affairs, a UAE delegate, Ahmed Awad
departed from the session after pronouncing it as a "waste of time".
Labor law issues
The UAE has four main types of labor laws:
Federal Labor Law – Applies to all the seven Emirates and supersedes free
zone laws in certain areas.[232]
JAFZA Labor Law – Applies to the Dubai Jebel Ali Free Zone.
TECOM Labor Law – Applies to all Dubai Technology and Media Free Zone
properties: Internet City, Media City, Studio City and International Media
Production Zone.
DIFC Labor Law – Applies to all companies in the Dubai International Financial
Center free zone.[234]
Labor laws generally favor the employer and are less focused on the rights of
employees. The Ministry of Labor is criticized for loosely enforcing these laws,
most notably late or no wage or overtime payment for both blue collar and white
collar employees.
Human trafficking and prostitution
Main articles: Human trafficking in the United Arab Emirates and Prostitution in
the United Arab Emirates
According to the Ansar Burney Trust (ABT), an illegal sex industry thrives
in the emirates, where a large number of the workers are victims of human
trafficking and sexual exploitation, especially in Dubai. This complements the
tourism and hospitality industry, a major part of Dubai's economy.[237]
Prostitution, though illegal by law, is conspicuously present in the emirate

because of an economy that is largely based on tourism and trade. There is a
high demand for women from Europe and Asia. According to the World Sex
Guide, a website catering to sex tourists, Eastern European and Ethiopian
women are the most common prostitutes, while Eastern European prostitutes are
part of a well-organized trans-Oceanic prostitution network.[238] The
government has been trying to curb prostitution. In March 2007, it was reported
that the UAE has deported over 4,300 sex workers mainly from Dubai.
The UAE government enshrines conservative values in its constitution and

therefore has adopted significant measures to combat this regional problem. The
government of the UAE has worked with law enforcement officials to build
capacity and awareness through holding training workshops and implementing
monitoring systems to report human rights violations. Despite this, the system
led to registration of only ten human-trafficking related cases in 2007 and half as
many penalized convictions. Businesses participating in exploiting women
and conducting illegal activities have licenses revoked and operations are forced
to close. In 2007, after just one year, the efforts led to prosecution of
prostitution cases rose by 30 percent. A year later, an annual report on the UAE's
progress on human trafficking measures was issues and campaigns to raise
public awareness of the issue are also planned.[242] Internationally, the UAE has
led various efforts in combating human trafficking, particularly with the main
countries of origin. The state has signed numerous bilateral agreements meant
to regulate the labor being sent abroad by ensuring transactions are conducted
by labor ministries and not profiting recruitment agencies.
The practice is officially banned in the UAE since the year 2002. The UAE
was the first to ban the use of children under 15 as jockeys in the popular local
sport of camel-racing when Sheikh Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, UAE's Deputy
Prime Minister and Minister of State for Foreign Affairs announced the ban on 29
July 2002.[244]
Announcing the ban, Sheikh Hamdan made it very clear that "no-one
would be permitted to ride camels in camel-races unless they had a minimum
weight of 45 kg, and are not less than 15 years old, as stated in their passports."
He said a medical committee would examine each candidate to be a jockey to
check that the age stated in their passport was correct and that the candidate
was medically fit. Sheikh Hamdan said all owners of camel racing stables would
be responsible for returning children under 15 to their home countries. He also
announced the introduction of a series of penalties for those breaking the new
rules. For a first offense, a fine of 20,000 AED was to be imposed. For a second
offense, the offender would be banned from participating in camel races for a
period of a year, while for third and subsequent offense, terms of imprisonment
would be imposed.[23]
The Ansar Burney Trust,[245] which was featured heavily in the HBO
documentary, announced in 2005 that the government of the UAE began actively
enforcing a ban on child camel jockeys, and that the issue "may finally be
resolved".
Special funds to provide support for victims have been created such as
Dubai's Foundation for the Protection of Women and Children, Abu Dhabi's Social
Support Center, the Abu Dhabi Shelter for Victims of Human Trafficking and the
UAE Red Crescent Authority. Services offered include counseling, schooling,
recreational facilities, psychological support and shelter. Mainly women and
children receive assistance and in certain cases are even repatriated to their
home countries.
LGBT
Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights are heavily

suppressed in the emirates of Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Ras al-Khaimah, Umm Al
Quwain, Ajman, Fujairah and Sharjah, which together form the United Arab
Emirates. All sexual relations outside a heterosexual marriage is a crime.
Punishments range from jail time, floggings, death, fines, and deportation.
Adultery and fornication are also crimes punished with death, and a person
convicted of homosexuality may also face charges of adultery if they have an
opposite-sex spouse while having sexual relations with a person of the same sex.
Open market
The combined value of exports and imports is equal to 172.8 percent of

GDP. The average applied tariff rate is 2.8 percent. As of June 30, 2018,
according to the WTO, the United Arab Emirates had 69 nontariff measures in
force. Investment efforts have focused on promoting private participation in
nonoil sectors, but progress has been slow. About 91 percent of adult Emiratis
have access to an account with a formal banking institution.
What is the main income of UAE?
Overview. UAE has the second-largest economy in the Arab world (after
Saudi Arabia), with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $377 billion (AED1.38
trillion) in 2012. A third of the GDP is from oil revenues. The economy was
expected to grow 4–4.5% in 2013, compared to 2.3–3.5% over the previous five
years.
Nonetheless, the health of the UAE's economy as a whole continues to fluctuate
with the world price of hydrocarbons and the economic vitality of its largest
trading partners, particularly Japan, which accounts for close to a third of UAE
petroleum exports. In part this is due to the large percentage of GDP taken up
by petroleum and in part to the fact that government revenues—70 to 80
percent of which come from oil—and spending are closely linked to oil prices.
These links have meant that different sectors of the economy have risen rapidly
in recent years as oil prices increased sharply after oil prices hit historic lows in
1998. One exception to this trend is the demand for electricity and power:
demand for power grew by nearly 400 percent between 1980 and 1998.
Among the most important corporations based in the UAE is the Abu
Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC). It manages the petroleum and gas
extraction operations in Abu Dhabi along with the 2 major petroleum refineries in
the UAE. Other key corporations are: Dubai state-owned Dubai Aluminum, a
leading supplier of aluminum to the states of the Gulf Cooperation Council;
Etisalat, the Abu Dhabi state-owned telecommunications firm; and Emi-rates
Airlines, Dubai's state-owned airline. The airline has won a plethora of
international "Best Airline" awards and maintains one of the most modern airline
fleets in the world. It has outclassed "Gulf Air" (a consortium owned by Abu
Dhabi, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman), which remains one of the leading airlines in
the Arabian/Persian Gulf region despite experiencing steep losses in the 1990s.
UAE focuses on free market principles
UAE is considered one of the advanced open economy states which adopt
free market and fair competition principles, says Shaikha Lubna Al Qasimi
Abu Dhabi: Delivering a lecture to a group of business administration students in

Brussels, Shaikha Lubna Al Qasimi, Minister of Foreign Trade, underscored that
the UAE is considered one of the advanced open economy states which adopt
free market and fair competition principles.
"The UAE's economy is the second largest in the Arab world. It registered
positive growth during 2009, reaching 3.1 per cent, raising the GDP (gross
domestic product) to $249 billion (Dh914 billion). It was supported by the strong
non-oil related sectors which contributed 66 per cent of the year's GDP," she
added, indicating "this was achieved despite the global economic slowdown."
Shaikha Lubna said the percentage of foreign trade to GDP reached 173
per cent in 2009. She explained the UAE's non-oil foreign trade amounted to
$181 billion in 2009, conducted with 202 countries from seven regions, with Asia
leading with 47 per cent, Europe with 23 per cent, America with 8.6 per cent, the
GCC states with 8.3 per cent and other Arab countries with seven per cent. She
added the UAE's foreign trade average growth rate reached around 31 per cent
during the period between 2004 to 2008.
Chapter V
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History

About the UAE History

The Paleolithic Age

In this period, the Bedouin communities lived on fishing and plant

Some pottery remains almost greenish-yellow, with black, geometric

Artifacts uncovered in the UAE show a history of human habitation and

A council of the Trucial States began to meet semiannually in 1952 to

United Arab Emirates (also known as U.A.E) is a federation of seven

The education in UAE is compulsory where age 5 and above including

Achievements and Problems

Global talent competitiveness

The UAE's commercial capital Dubai is ranked at number 4 and 5 as the

Public trust in politicians

Quality of air transport infrastructure

Social media usage

Most visited country

A convoy of UAE military vehicles and personnel travels from Al Hamra

UAE authorities have launched a sustained assault on freedom of

The United Arab Emirates’ intolerance of criticism continued in 2018 as

UAE authorities have launched a sustained assault on freedom of

In March 2017, the UAE detained Ahmed Mansoor, an award-winning

In March 2017, the UAE imposed a 10-year prison sentence on prominent

On May 5, 2018, security forces arrested British citizen Matthew Hedges at

The UAE is a leading member of the Saudi-led coalition operating in

Coalition members have provided insufficient information about the role

The UAE leads coalition efforts in southern Yemen, including by

Emirati commanders face possible criminal liability as a matter of

Discrimination on the basis of sex and gender is not included in the

Key International Actors

In October, the European Parliament adopted a resolution condemning

Present day of UAE

UAE authorities have launched a sustained assault on freedom of

In March 2017, the UAE detained Ahmed Mansoor, an award-winning

In March 2017, the UAE imposed a 10-year prison sentence on prominent

On May 5, 2018, security forces arrested British citizen Matthew Hedges at

Coalition members have provided insufficient information about the role

The UAE leads coalition efforts in southern Yemen, including by

Discrimination on the basis of sex and gender is not included in the

Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity

Key International Actors

In October, the European Parliament adopted a resolution condemning

According to Ibrahim Al Jarwan, member of the Arab Union for Astronomy

Democratic processes of U.A.E Elections

Federal National Council elections: how to vote

The full list of eligible voters is on the committee’s website -

Emiratis abroad cast their ballots on September 22 and 23 at voting

The main election day is October 5, when preliminary results will be

All 39 stations will open from 8am to 8pm on Election Day.

The preliminary list of elected members will be released on October 5

Candidates can register appeals on October 6 and 7, which the National

The final list of elected candidates will be announced on October 13,

The Federal National Council is one of five federal authorities established

The FNC’s main functions include passing, amending or rejecting draft

The emirates comprise a mixed environment of rocky desert, coastal

The United Arab Emirates is slightly smaller in area than Portugal. It is

Desert sand dunes, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

Plant and animal life