Photovoltaic Sizing and Battery

Photovoltaic Sizing and Battery Capacity Determination in Solar Electricity System
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Photovoltaic system comprises of photovoltaic cells that converts light energy

directly into electricity. Because the source of light is usually the sun, they are
often called solar cells (Michael Mooney, 1997). The word photovoltaic comes
from “photo” meaning light and “voltaic” refers to producing electricity.
Therefore, the photovoltaic process is “producing electricity directly from
sunlight”. Photovoltaic are often referred to as PV. (Michael Mooney, 1997).
Photovoltaic (PV) cells converts sunlight directly into electricity without creating
any air or water pollution and after consumers the ability to generate electricity
in a clean, quiet and reliable way, (Michael Money, 1997).
Solar battery capacity determination (otherwise known as solar battery bank

sizing) is one of the most important considerations when choosing the specific
solar electric system. A battery bank stores electricity produced by a solar
electric system. If the house is not connected to the utility grid or if long power
outages is anticipated from the grid, a battery bank will be needed, (National
Rewable Energy Laboratory 2002). Solar energy is radiant light and heat from
the sun harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as
photovoltaic and solar thermal energy.
 Photovoltaic Application: photovoltaic has been routinely used for roadside

emergency phones and many temporary construction signs, where the cost
and trouble of bringing in utility power outweighs the higher initial expenses
of photovoltaic and where mobile generator sets present more fueling and
maintenance trouble (solar Direct, 2016).
OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

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AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

 Thermal Application: photovoltaic cells, which make electricity from light are
not the only way of making solar power. Many homes use solar-thermal
panels to make hot water instead of electricity. These work in a completely
different way that does not involve electricity at all. Although they look
similar to photovoltaic panels, often sitting on the roof of a building in the
same way, solar thermal panels use a large sheet of black glass to soak up
the sun’s heat. Water trickles through the panels, warming up as it goes
before flowing through the homes water tank. That warms up the water in
the tank, which then flows out through people’s faucets (taps). The water
from the solar panel then returns to the roof to pick up more heat (Chris
Woodford, 2014).
1.2 Statement of Problem

The major problem of solar electricity system is a problem (Olaboni et al.,
2016). Determining the sizing of photovoltaic cells and battery capacity has
gone in a wrong way due to the fact that the right load capacity of solar
electricity system is not put into consideration. Therefore, this present research
is aimed to determine the load of photovoltaic sizing battery capacity.
1.3 Aims and Objectives
The aim of this project work is to determine the size of photovoltaic panels
required for a particular battery capacity in solar electricity system.
The Objectives are:
 Establishing the size of photovoltaic system and ratings of major

components needed to meet a certain performance.

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 Sizing of photovoltaic system base on any number of factors, depending

on the type system and its functional requirements (Jim Dunlop Solar
2012).
 By getting a battery bank that can handle the load coming from the
photovoltaic (PV) panel array.
 For the battery to provide enough stored power for the needs without
having to regularly discharge to an unhealthy point.
 By wiring multiple batteries together in different wiring arrangements, a
battery bank that is right for the solar power system can be designed and
thus correctly perform solar battery sizing (Alternate Energy Solution,
2016).
1.4 Significance of Study
This project work is significantly important to estimate and recommend solar

cell or panel sizing for a particular battery capacity for better performance and
provision of solar electricity systems.
1.5 Definition of Terms

 Cell (Solar): This is the basic unit of a photovoltaic solar panel. A
12volt solar panel typically has 36 individual cells; a 24volt solar
panels use 72 cells.
 Module (solar): A number of individual solar cells connected together
in an environmentally protected housing producing a standard output
voltage and power. Multiple modules or panels can be assembled into
an array for increased power or voltage.
 Photon: A particle of light that act as an individual unit of energy.
 Array (Solar): Any number of photovoltaic modules or panels
connected together to provide a single electrical output.
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 Back-up energy system: A back-up electric power system using

batteries and inverter, an AC generator, or both.
 Battery: A device containing electrolytic cells to store electrical energy
in chemical form.
 Cell (Battery): The basic unit of an electrochemical battery. A lead acid
cell produces about 2.12volts and a 12volts battery uses 6 of this cells
and fully charged measures about 12.72volts.
 Solar Energy: Electromagnetic energy transmitted from the sun (solar
radiation). The amount that reaches the earth is equal one billionth of
total solar energy generated or be equivalent of about 420 trillion
kilowatt-hours
 Sizing: The process of designing a solar electric system to meet the
required operating loads based on the total wattage of all appliances
in the system.
 Series: A wiring technique where multiple devices are wired together
to increase voltage but current remains the same.
 Parallel: A wiring technique where multiple devices are wired together
to increase but voltage remains the same.
 Panel (solar): A solar photovoltaic device composed of groups of
individual solar cells connected in series, in parallel, or in series-
parallel combination to produce a standard output.
 Load: The devices and appliances that draw power from an electrical
supply system.
 Grid: A common term referring to an electricity transmission and
distribution system run by large utility companies.
 Electrical grid: A large integrated system of electricity distribution
from centralized locations to individual homes and business.
 D.O.D (Depth of Discharge): the percentage that a battery is
discharged from a fully charged condition.

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 NOCT (Nominal Operating cell Temperature): This is the cell

temperature reached by open circuited cells in a module under
certain condition of irradiance on cell surface, air temperature, wind
velocity and mounting or open back side.
 Tamb (Ambient Temperature): This is the air temperature of an
environment or surrounding.
 Tamb (Cell temperature): This is the temperature of the solar cell itself,
not the temperature of the surrounding.
 STC (Standard Test Condition): This is the industry standard for the
condition under which solar panels are tested. By using a fixed set of
conditions, all solar panels can be more accurately compared and
rated against each other.
 Peak Watt (WP): The maximum nominal output of a PV (Solar) device,
in watt (WP) under standardized test condition (usually the most
favourable) (free sun power, 2015).
 Autonomy: This is the number of days that is needed for the system to
operate when there is no power produced by the PV panel.
 Autonomous System: This is a stand-alone power system that has no
utility connection. Most systems are designed for 3-5 of power from
batteries without recharging from a solar source of standby generator.
 Blocking DIODE: a semiconductor device used to stop the flow of
current from one direction, but allows it from opposite direct.
 Bypass DIODE: A diode connected across a solar cell in a photovoltaic
module such that the diode will conduct if the cell becomes reverse
bias due to shading or failure of other cells.
 TILT Angle (of a Solar Array): This is the angle at which a solar array
is set to face the sun relative to horizontal position and it is usually
adjusted seasonal due to the changing declination of the sun.

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 Peak Sun Hours (PSH): This is the equivalent numbers of hours per
day when solar radiation averages 1 kilo watt per square meter. For
example, 5 peak sun hours’ means that the energy received during
total day light hours equals the energy that would have been received
add the solar radiation for 5 hours being 1 kilo watt per square meter.
 Inverter (AC): An electronic device that converts 12, 24,48 or higher
volts DC power from batteries or solar panels from 120 or 240 volts
AC to operate normal appliances.
 Solar Irradiance, G: 1000w per square meter (WLM 2). This number
refers the to the amount of light energy falling on a given area at a
given time.
 Ambient Temperature (Temperature of the cell): This is the
temperature of the solar cell itself (usually 25 0c to 350c), not the
temperature of the surrounding.
 Maximum Power Point (MPP): This is the point on the current-voltage
(I-V) curve of a solar panel, where the product of current time’s
voltage equals maximum wattage.
 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT): This is a charge controller
technique that attempts to supply maximum power to the batteries by
tracking the maximum power point (MPP) at all times achieving a 15%
to 35% increase over other types of charging techniques.
 Charge Controller: This is an electronic device that regulates the
voltage from the solar panel array to ensure maximum transfer of
energy and prevent overcharging the battery bank.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Historical Development
The story of Photovoltaic cell began in 1839 and it takes through some facts,
persons and events which have marked the history of Photovoltaic’s.
Discovery of basic phenomena and properties of PV materials 1839-1899:

A physical phenomena allowing light-electric conversion-the photovoltaic
effects, was discovered in 1839 by the French physicist, Alexandra Edmond
Becquerel. Experimenting with mental electrode and electrolyte, he discovered
that conductance rises with illumination. Willougby Smith discovered the
photovoltaic effects in selenium in 1973. In 1876, with his students Richard E.
Day, William G. Adams discovered that illuminating a junction between
selenium and platinum also has a photovoltaic effect. These two discoveries
formed a foundation for the first selenium solar cell construction, which was
built in 1877. Charles Frits first described them in detail in 1883. In 1887,
Henrich Hertz discovered that ultra-videt light changes the voltage at which
sparks between two metals electrode would initiated.
Theoretical explanation of the photovoltaic effects and first solar cells,

1900 – 1949: The author of the most comprehensive work about the
photovoltaic effect was Albert Eistein, who described the phenomina in 1904.
For his theoretical explanation, he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1921.
Einstein’s theoretical explanation was proven in practiced by Robert Millikan’s
experiment in 1916. In 1918, a Polish scientist Jan Czochralski discovered a
method for mono-crystalline silicon production, which enables mono-
crystalline solar cell production. The first silicon mono-crystalline solar cell was
constructed in 1941. In 1932, the photovoltaic effect in cadmium-selenide was

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observed. Nowadays, cadmium-selenide, cds is among the important materials

for solar cell production (Denis Lenardic, 2015).
2.2 Solar Cells
Photovoltaic are best as a method for generating electric power by using solar
cells to convert energy from sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect
refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of energy,
allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic
effect was first observed by Alexander-Edmond Becquerel in 1839. The term
photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photo diode in which
current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy.
Virtually all photovoltaic devices and some type of photo diode.
Solar cells produced direct current electricity from sunlight which can be used
to power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application was
to power orbiting satellite and other space craft, but today the majority of
photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. In this
case, an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of

solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for
photovoltaic include mono-crystalline silicon, poly-crystalline silicon,
amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium, gallium selenide or
sulfide.
Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly
behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can
deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic modules,
or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone,
but for a house or a power plant, the modules must be arranged in multiples
as arrays.
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Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under

standardized test condition (STC) in “WP” (Watts Peak). The actual power
output at particular point in time may be less than or greater than this
standardized, ‘rated’, value, depending on geographical location, time of day,
weather conditions and other factors. Solar photovoltaic array capacity factor
are typically under 25%, which is lower than many other industrial sources of
electricity (Wikipedia, 2016).
2.3 Solar Electricity System Components
Solar photovoltaic system include different component that should be selected

according to system type, site locations and application. The major components
for solar PV system are photovoltaic modules, photovoltaic arrays and wiring
panels (Leonics, 2013). The components of solar electricity include;
i. Photovoltaic cell (solar panel)
ii. Battery
iii. Control unit
iv. Inverter
v. AC and DC loads
vi. Cables
PV Solar
Module Charge Inverter Battery
Controller
DC AC
Load Load

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Fig. 2.1: Block diagram of a solar electricity system.

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2.4 Photovoltaic Modules
A photovoltaic module consists of PV cells circuits sealed in an environmentally

protective laminate and are the fundamental building block of PV systems. The
various PV cells are wired in parallel to increase current and in series to
produce a higher voltage. 36 cells modules are the industry standard for a
large power production.
The module is encapsulated with tempered glass (or some other transparent
materials) on the front surface, and with a protective and waterproof material
on the back surface. The edges are sealed for waterproofing and there is often
an aluminum frame holding everything together a mountable unit. In the back
of the module, there is a junction box or wire leads providing electrical
connections.
2.5. Photovoltaic Array
A PV array is the complete power-generating unit consists of any number of PV

modules and panels that have been wired together in a series or parallel to
deliver the voltage and amperage a particular system requires, (Solar Direct
1986-2016).

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2.6. Wiring Panels
Panels can be wired either in series or parallel. For example, if the panels are
24 volts and the controller and batteries are 24volts, then one will need to wire
the panels in parallel, this is done by connecting all the positives connections
together and separately connect all the negatives together
(www.solarfacts.com).
24V to charge + + + +
24V Panel 24V Panel 24V Panel 24V Panel
Controller _ _ _ _
Fig. 2.2: Diagram of panels connected in parallel.
In order to connect pairs of solar panels in series, the positive terminal of one
panel is connected to the negative of the next; this is done so as to increase the
voltage. This is shown in the figure below:
+ +
24V Panel 24V Panel
_ _
+ +
24V Panel 24V Panel
_ _
Fig. 2.3: Diagram of panels connected in series.

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2.7. Types of Solar Panel
There are four (4) main types of solar panel, namely;
i. Mono-crystalline Silicon Cells: This is made using cells saw-cut from

single cylindrical of silicon; this is the most efficient of the PV
technologies. The principal advantages of mono-crystalline cells is
their high efficiency, typically around 15% although the
manufacturing process required to produced mono-crystalline silicon
is complicated resulting in slightly higher costs than other
technologies.
ii. Multi-Crystalline Silicon cells: This is made from cells cut from an in-
got of melted and re-crystalline silicon. In the manufacturing process,
molten silicon cast into in-got of poly-crystalline silicon, there in-got
are then saw-cut into very thin wafers and assembled into complete
cells. They are less efficient with average efficient efficiencies of
around 12% creating a granular texture.
iii. Thick-film Silicon cells: This is another multi-crystalline technology
where the silicon is deposited in a continuous process onto a base
material giving a fine grained, sparkling appearance. This is
encapsulated in a transparent insulating polymer with a tempered
glass cover and usually bound into a strong aluminum frame.
iv. Amorphous Silicon Cells (thin-film): These are composed of silicon
atoms in a thin homogenous layer than crystalline silicon, so the cells
can be thinner. Amorphous cells are less efficient than crystalline
based cells, with typical efficiencies of around 6% easier and
therefore, cheap to produced. Their low cost make them ideally suited
for many applications where high efficiency is not required and low
cost is important.

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Fig. 2.4: Solar Panels
2.8 History of Battery
In the modern era, electrical energy is normally converted from mechanical

energy, solarenergy and chemical energy etc. a battery is a device that converts
chemical energy to electrical energy. The first battery was developed by
Alessandro Volta in the year of 1800. In the year 1836, John Frederic Daniell, a
British chemist developed the Daniell cell as an improved version of the voltaic
cell. From that time until today, the battery has been the most popular source
of electricity in many daily life applications. In our daily life, we generally use
two types of batteries; one of them is which can be used once before it gets
totally discharged. Another type of battery is rechargeable which means it can

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be used multiple times by recharging it externally. The former is called primary

battery and the later is called primary battery and the later is called secondary.
Battery can be found in different sizes. A battery may be as small as a shirt

button or may be so big in size that a whole room will be required to install a
battery bank. With this variation of sizes, the battery is used anywhere from
small wrist watches to a large ship.
Fig. 2.5a Battery-Symbol
We often see this symbol in many diagrams of electrical and electronics

network. This is the most popularly used symbol for battery. The bigger lines
represent positive terminal of the cells and smaller lines represent negative
terminal of the cells connected in the battery. We are often confused about the
terms battery cells and battery. We generally refer to a battery as single
electrochemical cell. But literally, battery does not mean that. Battery means a
number of electrochemical cells connected together to meet a certain voltage
and current level. Although, there may be a single cell battery, literally, battery
and cell are different (Electrical 4u, 2016).

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Fig. 2.5b: Parthian Battery
In the year 1936 during the middle of summer, an ancient tomb was
discovered during construction of a new railway line near Bagdad city in Iraq.
The relics found in that tomb were about 2000 years old. Among these relics,
there were clay jars of vessels which were seals at the top with pitch. An iron
rod surrounded by a cylindrical tube made of wrapped copper sheet was
projected out from this sealed top.
When theses pots were filled with an acidic liquid, they produce a potential
difference of around 2volts between the iron and copper. These clay jars are
suspected to be 2000 years old battery cells.
Fig. 2.5c: Luigi Galvani Experiment

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In 1786, Luigi Galvani, an Italian anatomist and physiologist was surprised

that when he touched a dead frog’s leg with two different metals, the muscles
of the legs contracted. He could not understand the actual reason why,
otherwise, he would have been know as the first inventor of the battery cell. He
thought the reaction might be due to a property of the tissue.
Fig. 2.5d: voltaic-pile
After that, Alessandro volta realized that some phenomena could be created by
using cardboard soaked in salt water instead of using frog’s leg. He sandwiched
a copper disc with a piece of cardboard soaked in salt water in between them
and found a potential difference between the copper and zinc.
After that, in 1800, He developed the first voltaic pile (battery) constructed of
alternating copper and zinc discs with pieces of cardboard soaked in brine
between them. This system could produce measurable current. Alessandro
Volta’s voltaic pile was considered the first “wet battery cell”. Thus, the history
of battery began.

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Fig 2.5e Daniell-cell
The main problem with the Voltaic pile was that, it could not deliver current for
a long time. This problem was solved by a British inventor John F Daniel in
1836. He invented a more developed version of the battery cell which is known
as the Daniell cell. Here in this cell, one zinc sulfate in one container and one
copper rod is immersed in copper (11) sulfate in another container. The
solutions of these two containers are bridged by a U shaped salt bridge. A
Daniell cell could produce 1.1 volt and this type of battery lasted much longer
than the Voltaic pile.
In 1839, the fuel cell was designed by Sir William Robert Grove, a discoverer
and man of science. He mixed hydrogen and oxygen within an electrolyte
solution, and created electricity and water. The fuel cell did not deliver enough
electricity, but it is helpful.
Bunsen (1842) and Grove (1839) created enhancements to battery that used
liquid electrodes to supply electricity.

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Fig 2.5f Lead Acid Battery
In the year of 1859, Gaston Plante; first developed the lead acid battery cell.
This was the first form of rechargeable secondary battery. The lead acid battery
is still in use for many industrial purposes. It is still the most popular to be
used as car battery.
In 1866, the battery was again developed by a French engineer, Georges

Leclanche. It was a carbon-zinc wet cell battery known as the Leclanchecell.
Crushed manganese dioxide mixed with a bit of carbon forms the positive
electrode and a zinc rod is used as the negative electrode. Ammonium chloride
solution is used as a liquid electrolyte. After some years, Georges Leclanche
himself improved his own design by replacing liquid ammonium chloride
solution with ammonium chloride. This was the invention of the first dry cell.
In 1901, Thomas Alva Edison discovered the alkaline accumulator. Thomas

Edison’s basic cell had iron as the anode material (-ve) and nickel oxide as the
cathode material (+ve), this is just one portion of an endless history of battery,
(electrical4u.com, 2016).

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Table 2.1 Step by step development in history of batteries. (Electrical

4u.com 2016)
Developer / Inventor Country Year Invention
Luigi Galvani Italy 1786 Animal electricity
Alessandro Volta Italy 1800 Voltaic Pile
John F. Daniell Britain 1836 Daniell cell
Sir William Robert Britain 1839 Fuel cell Grove
Robert Bunsen German 1842 used liquid electrodes

to supply electricity
Gaston Plante France 1859 Lead Acid cell
Thomas Alva Edison United 1901 Alkaine Accumulator

states
2.8.1 Battery Bank
Since the photovoltaic panels produced electricity whenever the sun shines on
them, if the system off grid, a battery bank will be needed to store energy so as
to have electricity at night and on a cloudy day. Battery bank for, off-grid is
designed to keep household electricity running for on one to three cloudy day.
Grid intertied system can also include battery banks t provide emergency
backup power during blackouts-perfect for keeping critical electric loads
operate until the power is restored.
There are many types of batteries available and each type is designed for
specific applications. Lead-acid batteries have been used for residential solar
electric systems for many years and are still the best choice for this application
because of their low maintenance requirements.
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The best kinds of batteries to use in a residential power system are deep-
discharge lead-acid batteries specially designed for stationary solar electric
systems. Car and marine batteries are not recommended for solar electric
system use because they are designed to give a large burst of energy when
starting a vehicle and are not made for deep discharges. Although they are
sometimes used in situations in which deep discharge batteries are not
available, car and, marine batteries will quickly fail if used in a solar electric
application.
The basic building block of a lead-acid battery is a 2volt cell. A battery bank is
a collection of connected 2-, 6-, or 12-volt batteries that supply power to the
household in case of outage or low production from renewable energy sources.
The batteries are wired together in series to produce 12-, 24-, or 48-volt
strings. These strings are then connected in parallel to make up the entire
battery bank. The battery bank supplies DC power to an inverter, which
produces AC power that can be used to run appliances. The decision to select a
12-, 24-, or 48 volt battery bank will be determined by the inverter’s input, the
type of battery selected and the amount of energy storage required (National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2002).
Fig. 2.6: The Battery

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2.8.2 Deep Cycle Battery
They are constructed to be discharged down as much as 80% after the time
and have much thicker plates. A deep cycle battery is designed to be regularly
deeply discharge using most of its capacity. In contrast, starter batteries (e.g.
most automobile batteries) are designed to deliver short, high-current bursts
for cracking the engine, thus frequently discharge of only a very small part of
their capacity.
2.8.3 Deep Cycle Battery Rating
There are two ways to rate a battery; volts and Amp hours (Ah) are rated
capacity available in chemical energy inside a battery is converted into
electrical energy. It also refers to the amount of energy that the battery can
store or conversely, it can be defined as the discharge rate which measures the
time it takes to discharge a battery before it need charging. The Amp hour (Ah)
capacity will be reduced by about 50% and so will be the amount of cycles over
a number of hours. For example, many small batteries are rated at the C 20rate;
this means that they will deliver their Amp hour capacity if discharged over
20hours.
2.9 Principle of Operation of Photovoltaic Solar Panels
The photovoltaic phenomenon was started to be used to turn direct sunlight

into energy since 1954. The principle is that when a photo reaches a
semiconductor, then the negative transitional surface of the polarity ejects the
electron thus two conductors are created: the free electron and the electron
hole.

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The released electrons flow to the upper layer. In the bottom layer the electrons
are deflected from one atom to the other in a way that they fill the empty
places. The free electrons are conducted from the upper layer into the electric
field where the solar cell is located. This is how electricity is created in this area
as long as sunlight reaches the solar panel.
The photovoltaic equipment operates automatically and without maintenance.

Solar panels produce direct electrical current, which is converted to 230Volt AC
by means of an inverter (power conversion equipment). The solar power system
is running in parallel, with the electric provider’s network (Fotowoltaika, 2016).
2.10 Principle of Operation of Battery
To understand the basic principle of battery properly, first, we have some basic
concept of electrolytes and electrons affinity. Actually, when two dissimilar
metals or metallic compounds are immersed in an electrolyte, there will be a
potential difference produced between these metals or metallic compounds. It
is found that, when some specific compounds are added to water, they get
dissolved and produce negative and positive ions. This type of compound is
called an electrolyte. The popular examples of electrolytes are almost all kinds
of salts, acids and bases etc.
The energy released during accepting an electron by a neutral atom is known

as electron affinity. As the atomic structure for different materials are different,
the electron affinity of different materials will differ. If two different kinds of
metals or metallic compounds are immersed in the same electrolyte solution,
one of them will gain electrons and the other will release electrons. Which
metal (or metallic compound) will gain electrons and which will lose them
depend upon the electron affinities of these metals or metallic compounds. The
metal with low electron affinity will gain electrons from the negative ions of the

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electrolyte solution. On the other hand, the metal with high electron affinity
will release electrons and these electrons come out into the electrolyte solution
and are added to the positive ions of the solution. In this way, one of these
metals or compounds gains electrons and another one losses electrons. As a
result, there will be a different in electron concentration between these two
metals. This difference of electron concentration causes an electrical potential
difference to develop between the metals. This electrical potential difference or
e.m.f can be utilized as a source of voltage in any electronic or electrical circuit.
This is a general and basic principal of battery (electrical4u.com, 2016).
2.11 Charge Controller
The term “charge control or control unit” may refer to either a stand-alone
device, or to control circulatory integrated with a battery pack, battery-power
device, battery recharger. A charge controller is basically a voltage and or
current regulator to keep batteries from over charging. It regulates the voltage
and current coming from the solar panels going to the battery.
A charge controller or battery regulator limits the rate at which electric current
is added to a drawn from electric batteries. It prevents over-charging and may
prevent against over-voltage, which can reduce battery performance or lifespan,
and may pose a safety risk. It may also prevent completely drain (deep
discharging) a battery, or perform controlled discharge, depending on the
battery technology to protect battery life.
Solar lighting controller is controlled by micro-CPU and has the SOC (state of
charge) a battery system control function. It can intelligently sense the outside
light. It turns on light at dark and turns off light at dawn or the fixed time. This
controller also monitors battery charging and discharging. It will protect
batteries by turning off light by pulse-width-modulation (PWM) automatically

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as the batteries approach full charge. The controller also has a protection
circuit to prevent accidental damage.
Fig. 2.7: Charge controller (Regulator)
2.12 Inverter
This is an electrical or electronic device used to convert DC produced by the

solar panels and DC stored in battery into AC electricity.
Fig. 2.8: The Inverter

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2.12.1 Different Types of Inverter
The following are basic types of inverter:
i. Modified Sine Wave Inverter: this type of inverter obtains power

from a battery of 12volts and must be recharged using a generator or
a solar panel. Appliances like microwaves, oven. Light bulbs etc can
run using this type of inverter.
ii. True Sine Wave: This type of inverter provides better power compared
to the modified sine wave inverter. They are also run using a battery
of a large capacity.
iii. Solar Inverter: Solar inverters are energy efficient as they do not
require a separate source for generating power. The solar energy is
collected during the day time and used as time of need after being
converted into electricity energy. There are three types of solar
inverter;
(a) Stand-Alone Inverter: these are used in isolated systems such as
cabins, cottages, water heaters, pumps and monitoring stations.
They are used for mobile energy such boats. The stand-alone
inverter draws the DC energy taken from solar rays, from batteries
and other sources such as wind turbines, hydro-turbines and
engine generators. The stand alone inverters do not usually work
with utility grids and are not required to have anti-islanding
protection.
(b) Grid-Tie Inverter:A grid tie inverter is an electrical device that
allows users to complement their grid power with solar energy. The
grid-tie inverter regulates the amount of voltage and the current
that is received from the DC solar panel and then converts it into
an AC. Grid-tie inverter makes sure that the power will be in phase
with the grid-power. Grid-tie inverters do not provide power in the

28

event of a power shortage. On the AC side, grid-tie inverters supply

electricity in sinusoidal form.
(c) Battery Backup Inverter:This is a special inverter that draws
energy from a battery, as well as manages the battery charge via
an on-board charge, and also transfer is required to have anti-
islanding protection.
2.12.2. Intelligent Charge Inverter
Intelligent charge inverter is an uninterruptible power supply for load home

appliances. AC output switches automatically between wire and inverter. It
adopts switch power supply with high efficiency. Under the same load, its
service life can be 1/2 to 1/3 longer than conventional inverter battery; a
certain safety load shall be reserved for induction load (because actuation
current of induction load is 5-10 times of running current). This equipment can
be used in electrical refrigerators, computers, televisions, electric drills,
electrical hammers, fluorescent tubes and other homes appliances.

29

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Sizing of Photovoltaic (PV) and Determination of Battery Capacity
The materials required and used to determine photovoltaic sizing battery

capacity are as follows:
i. Mono-Crystalline Photovoltaic Panels (80W): It is used in charging the

battery to determine its size (in power) that will charge or supply
current to a particular battery capacity in it full strength in Current-
Hour (Amp-Hour).
ii. Battery (100A-h lead-acid): It was been charged by the current
supplied by the photovoltaic panels to determine its Current-Hour
(Amp-Hour) capacity and its performances per time for solar
electricity system.
iii. Charge Controller: it was been connected to the PV panels to regulate
the voltage and current coming from the solar panels going to charge
the battery through an inverter.
iv. Inverter: This an electrical device connected to a charge controller
(regulator) used to store DC produced by the solar panels into the
battery and converting it into AC electricity.
v. Multi-Meter: It was used to determine the current and voltage
supplied by a photovoltaic panel.
vi. Connecting Wires: It was used in connecting the panels to the
regulators, the regulator to the inverter, and the inverter to the
battery.
vii. Pliers: It was used in joining two connecting wires together.
viii. Screw driver: It was used to tie and untie the nut and screw on a
panel and battery.

30

3.2 Basics of Sizing
The most important thing that one needs to know before sizing a PV system is
the energy requirements of a set-up. (Along with all the electrical values of the
appliances), a few things that can help are:
i. Wattages and counts of all the appliances that needs to be run on

solar PV.
ii. If there is no wattages, then the current requirement (in Amperes) of
the appliances can be used for calculating the wattage with the simple
formula:
Watt = Ampere x voltage (240)
iii. Electricity bills of the set up. Used to check the monthly electricity
units used in a set up. Daily units can be obtained by dividing month
units by 28, 29, 30, or 31 (depending on the number of days in the
month for which the bill is generated).
iv. Daily usage of each appliance in hours. This is required if there is no
sample electricity bill. This helps in calculating the number of units of
electricity used in a day using the formula below:
Units = (Watts x Hours)

100
Two things are absolutely essential which are:
a. Total wattage of appliances (which denotes the instantaneous

electricity requirement of a set up).
b. Total units (which denotes the total electricity used in a day).

31

3.3 Sizing a PV Panel
To size a PV panel, the most essential thing to know is the total units
consumed in a day by the appliances in a set up (unless it is direct connected
system or a grid connected system. The size of PV system was not less than the
one that can generate total units consumed in a day. Every PV panel has a
peak watt (Wp) mentioned on them. A 1KWp (or peak kilowatt) system would
generate 5 – 7units in a day. Thus, the right size of PV system (in KWp) should
be estimated by dividing maximum daily usage unit by 5.
A bigger system can be used if going for a grid connected system where extra
electricity produced will be sold back to the electricity power. In such cases,
the size of PV system can be optimized based on the space that is available for
installing PV panels (BijliBachao, 2016).
3.4 Sizing Batteries for PV System
If there is no grid connected system or a direct connected system, batteries are

needed to store the energy generated using PV panels. Along with sizing of the
PV panel, it is important to size the batteries as well. Because, if more batteries
are purchased then they will not get fully charged. If fewer batteries are
bought, maximum benefits may not be able to be gotten out of the solar panels.
Most big PV system use deep cycle (or deep discharge) batteries that are
designed to discharge to low energy levels and also to recharge rapidly. These
are typically lead-acid batteries that may or may not require maintenance.
Batteries have energy storage ratings measured in Amp-Hour (Ah) or mili-Amp-

Hour (mAh). They also have a nominal voltage that they generate (typically
deep discharge batteries are 12V batteries, cell phones batteries are 5V
batteries etc).To calculate the total energy a battery can store, the following
formula can be used:
32

Units = (volt x Ah)÷1000 or (Volt x mAh)÷1000000.
The total units required in a day has been discussed and also the sizing of the
PV system. The batteries were sized in such a way that the units of energy
generated by the PV system were equal to the number that was calculated.
So, assuming we have a 1KWp system and we assume that on an average it

generates 6 units a day, and if we have to buy 12V battery for it, the Ah (or
storage) or battery required will be:
(6 x 1000)÷12 = 500Ah.
3.5 Sizing Inverter for a Solar PV System
Sizing of inverter depends on the wattage of appliances connected to it. The

input rating of inverter should never be lower than the total wattages of the
appliances. Also, it should have the same nominal input voltage as that of the
battery set-up. It is always better to have inverter wattage about 20-25% moa
than that of the appliances connected. This is specifically essential if the
appliances connected have compressors or motors (like AC, refrigerator, pump
etc), which draw high starting current.
Most inverters available in market are rated on KVA/VA or KiloVolts

Ampere/Volts Ampere. In ideal situation (power factor of 1) 1VA = 1Watt. But
in real power factor varies from 0.85-0.99. So one can assume 1.18VA = 1watt.
So if there is a setup where the total wattage of the system is 1000Watt, it
means the inverter size required is more than 1180VA or 1.18KVA (add some
extra to be on a safer side).
The higher the VA of an inverter more is the number of appliances it can

support, but more costly it would be. Also for a grid-tied system, as there are
no batteries connected, the size or VA of the inverter should match the wattage
of PV panel for efficient and safe operation (BijliBachao, 2016).
33

In determining the solar power requirements and size of component for an

electric system using solar power (PV), the first two (2) factors that were
considered werethe sunlight levels (isolation values) from the area and the daily
power consumption of the electrical loads.
The thesis of this project work is sizing of photovoltaic (PV)and by determining

the capacity of the battery for a four (4) bedroom flat that will power the
following appliances; DC fan, Radio, TV, Compact Fluorescent Light (CFL), tube
light, refrigerator, microwave, washing machine, DVD Player, pumping
machine.
The total Ampere hours per day used by all the AC and DC loads in the
building were determined to sizing the photovoltaic (PV) and the battery
capacity required. The watt was multiplied by hours per day to get Watt-Hour
(Wh/day) for each load (wattage of appliance is from the owner’s manual). For
an item rated in ampere, it was multiplied by operating to find the watts.
Alternatively, AC loads can be accurately calculated by the use of a power
meter. All the watts-hours per day were added to determine total watts-hours
per day.

34

3.6 Table 3.1: Loads Required for the Estimation
Energy Requirement: Sample list for DC and AC loads.
Description Power Quantity Total Duration Efficiency Energy

(w) (W) (H) (Wh)
DC fan 45 2 90 8 0.9 800
CF Light 11 8 88 6 0.85 621
Radio 20 1 20 12 0.9 267
Microwave 500 1 500 1 0.85 588
Washing 100 1 100 2 0.85 235
machine
Total DC 2,511
Tube Light 45 4 180 6 0.9 1200
TV 100 2 200 4 0.8 1000
Refrigerato 200 1 200 8 0.9 1778
r
DVD 40 1 40 4 0.8 200
Player
Total AC 4,178
Extra Load 25 17 425 2 0.85 1000
Total Load 1843 7,689

35

3.7 Results
Energy (Wh) = total power (W) x usage (h)
Efficiency (decimal)
∑Energy (Wh) = 7689Wh
Therefore, total energy =7689Wh
Established based on the total energy requirement in the system voltage.
i. System voltage chooses as a multiple of 12 volts (subject to system

size).
Maximum current (A) = Total power (W)
System Voltage
= 1843W
12V
= 153.58A
Charge Required (Ah) = Energy required (Wh)
System voltage (V)
= 7,689 Wh
12V
= 640.75Ah
ii. Select Battery:

Ideal C20 12Volts (Available voltages are 2, 6, 12, Vdc)
C20 battery 100Ah 100Ah/20h = 5A for 20 hours

36

Battery capacity required (Ah) = Charge required (Ah) x autonomy (d)
Maximum debt of discharge (decimal) DOD
= 640.75Ah x 3
0.80
= 2402.81Ah
Number of batteries (series) = PV system Voltage (V)

Nominal battery voltage
= 12v
12v
= 1
Number of batteries (parallel) = Battery Capacity Required (Ah)

Selected Battery Capacity (Ah)
= 2402.81
100
= 24.03 ≈25
Battery Bank Capacity (Ah) = 25 (parallel) x 100 (Ah)
= 2500Ah
iii. PV Array Sizing

PV Array Output Needed (Ah)= Battery Capacity Required (Ah)
Battery charging Efficiency (decimal)
= 2402.81
0.9
= 2669.79Ah

37

Nominal Capacity cell Temperature, NOCT = 45oc
Solar power Irradiance, G = 920Whm -2
Ambient Temperature , Tamb. = 35oc
Peak Solar Hours, Psh = 3.5hours
PV Panel Data = 80Wp
Current at maximum power point, Imp = 4.54A
Temperature Coefficient Crystalline = 0.5%/oC
Temperature Coefficient Amorphous = 0.25%/oC
Tcell = Tamb + (NOCT – 20) x G
0.8
= 35 + (45 – 20) x 0.92KWhm-2
0.8
= 35 + (31.25) (0.92)
Tcell = 35 + 28.75
= 63.750C
Temperature at Standard Test Condition, TSTC= 250C
Pderated (Wp) = Ftemp. x PSTC(Wp)
= [1-(γVmp x (Tcell - TSTC)] x PSTC(Wp)
= [1 – (0.5 x (63.75 – 25)] x 80Wp

100

38

= 0.806 x 80Wp = 64.5Wpderated
Vderated = Pderated (Wp)
Imp
= 64.5Wp
4.54A
= 14.21V
Number of Modules in Series = PV System Voltage
Vderated
= 12V
14.21
= 0.844≈1
PV Module Daily Output (Ah) = Imp x Psh
= 4.54A x 3.5h
= 15.89Ah
Number of Module in Parallel = PV Output Required

PV Daily Output
= 2669.79Ah
15.89
= 168.02 ≈ 169

39

Total Number of Modules Required =
Number of module in series x number of module in parallel
= 1 x 169
= 169 modules
Parray STC (Wp)= Pmod STC (Wp) x Total number of modules required
Parray STC (Wp) = 80(Wp) x 169
= 13,520 Wp.
3.8 Summary
PV Modules: 1 in series x 169 in parallel = 169 modules
PV Capacity at STC/Location: 13,520 Wp
Batteries: 1 in series x 25 in parallel = 25 batteries
Battery Bank Peak Capacity: 2500Ah.

40

Photovoltaic sizing and battery capacity
determination in solar elctricity system
3.9 General Installation of Solar Electricity Generator with PV Array in

both Series and Parallel Connections
Fig. 3.1: The Block Diagram of a Solar Electricity Generator

41

CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
4.1 Conclusion
The number of the Photovoltaic cells and batteries depend on the purpose
(loads) in which it is designed for determining its performance characteristics.
The photovoltaic cells size and battery capacity was found adequate to power
all the appliances available in the four (4) bedroom flat as shown in table 3.1.
The total number of the photovoltaic modules and batteries are 169 and 25
respectively which are all connected in parallel to increase the current output
and keep the voltage output within the charging and system voltage rating.
Hence, the result of this work will be a good prototype for photovoltaic cells
sizing and batteries capacity determinant.

42

4.2 Recommendation
From the discovery, the initial cost of setting up of a solar system is high when
compared with other forms of electricity generator such as fuel type, but on the
long run, it is cost effective and environmental friendly, it has lesser
maintenance service, and not difficult to operate. Moreover, the durability of
solar electricity system is greater than other forms of electricity generator if
proper and standard sizing techniques are accurately put in place.
A larger sized system may cost more whereas a smaller sized system may not
fulfill one’s requirements and thus, sizing a solar PV system before purchasing
is very important and should be considered. Sizing depends on the load
requirements in the set up.
Therefore, with the result of this project, for better and efficient solar energy
system, a bigger sized solar system is required.

43

REFERENCES
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using a sun-tracking system. Applied Energy, 79 (3): 345-354. doi:
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energy world.com.
Andrews, Rob W, (2013): The effects of snow fall on solar photovoltaic

performance. Solar energy. 92 (8497): 84-97. doi:
10.1016/j.solener.2013.02.014.
BijliBachao, (2016): Sizing Batteries and Inverters for a solar PV system.

Accessed on April 22, 2016.
Branka, J. M. (2011): A review of solar photovoltaic levelized costs of

electricity. Renewable and sustainable energy review. 15 (9): 4470-4482.
Doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.104 hdl: 1974/6879.
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devices.
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efforts to harness energy. How do solar cells work? – Available at:
explainthatstuff.com. Accessed on 2nd May, 2016.
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Accessed on 10th May, 2016.
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perspective. ISSN 0044-7447. PMC 335764. PMID 22434436.
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freesunpower.com/solar-term php.
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Gevorkian, Peter (2007): Sustainable energy system enginerring; the complete

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Photovoltaic Sizing and Battery Capacity Determination in Solar Electricity System

1.1 Background of Study

Photovoltaic system comprises of photovoltaic cells that converts light energy

Solar battery capacity determination (otherwise known as solar battery bank

 Photovoltaic Application: photovoltaic has been routinely used for roadside

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

1.2 Statement of Problem

1.3 Aims and Objectives

The Objectives are:

 Establishing the size of photovoltaic system and ratings of major

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

 Sizing of photovoltaic system base on any number of factors, depending

1.4 Significance of Study

This project work is significantly important to estimate and recommend solar

1.5 Definition of Terms

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

 Back-up energy system: A back-up electric power system using

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

 NOCT (Nominal Operating cell Temperature): This is the cell

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

2.1 Historical Development

Discovery of basic phenomena and properties of PV materials 1839-1899:

Theoretical explanation of the photovoltaic effects and first solar cells,

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

observed. Nowadays, cadmium-selenide, cds is among the important materials

2.2 Solar Cells

Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under

2.3 Solar Electricity System Components

Solar photovoltaic system include different component that should be selected

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

Fig. 2.1: Block diagram of a solar electricity system.

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

2.4 Photovoltaic Modules

A photovoltaic module consists of PV cells circuits sealed in an environmentally

2.5. Photovoltaic Array

A PV array is the complete power-generating unit consists of any number of PV

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

2.6. Wiring Panels

Fig. 2.2: Diagram of panels connected in parallel.

Fig. 2.3: Diagram of panels connected in series.

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

OYEDEMI MAYOWA RICHARD [LT/ND/P12/1703]

AND ONYEMECHA HENRY OKWUDIRI [LT/ND/P12/1699]

2.7. Types of Solar Panel