Digestive System – Fernandez, Andrew P.

1. Functions
a. Take in Food
b. Break down food
c. Absorption of food
i. Provide nutrients
d. Eliminate waste
2. Parts:
a. Pharynx (Throat)
b. Oral Cavity (mouth)
c. Salivary Glands
i. Parotid Gland
1. Upper part of the mouth
ii. Sublingual Gland
1. Under the tongue
iii. Submandibular Gland
1. Floor of mouth
d. Esophagus
e. Stomach
f. Small Intestine
g. Large Intestine
h. Appendix
i. Rectum
j. Anus
3. Peritoneum
a. Layer of smooth epithelial tissue
i. Mesenteries:
1. Connective tissue of organs in abdominal cavity
ii. Lesser omentum:
1. Mesentery connecting lesser curvature of stomach to liver and
diaphragm
iii. Greater omentum:
1. Mesentery connecting greater curvature of stomach to transverse
colon and posterior body wall
4. Oral Cavity
a. First part of digestive system
i. Stratified Squamous epithelia
b. Contains Salivary Glands:
i. Produce saliva containing enzymes
ii. Cleanses mouth
iii. Dissolve and moisten food
iv. Salivary Enzymes:
1. Amylase – breaks down carbohydrates to glucose
2. Lysozyme – active against bacteria
c. Tongue
i. Houses the taste buds and mucus
d. Teeth
i. 32 in normal adult
1. 20 primary teeth (baby teeth)
ii. Incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom
iii. Pulp Cavity
1. Center of a tooth
iv. Enamel
1. Hard covering of teeth
2. Protects against abrasions
v. Cavities
1. Breaking down of enamel by acids from bacteria
e. Palate
i. Roof of the oral cavity
ii. Hard Palate
1. Anterior
iii. Soft Palate
1. Posterior
iv. Salivary Glands
1. Includes:
a. Parotid
i. Purely serous secretion
b. Sublingual
i. Mixed predominantly serous
c. Submandibular
i. Mixed predominantly mucous
2. Produce saliva containing enzyme to breakdown food
3. Mumps is the inflammation of parotid gland
f. Pharynx
i. Throat
ii. Connects the mouth to the esophagus
g. Esophagus
i. Tube that connects the Pharynx to Stomach
ii. Transport food to stomach
iii. Joins stomach at cardiac opening
iv. Heartburn
1. Occurs when stomach acid is regurgitated into the esophagus
2. Can be caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating/drinking in excess
v. Swallowing
1. 3 Phases:
a. Voluntary
i. Bolus (chewed mass of food) is formed in the mouth
and pushed into the oropharynx
 b. Pharyngeal phase:
i. Swallowing reflex initiated when bolus stimulates
receptors in oropharynx
c. Esophageal phase
i. Moves food from pharynx to stomach
2. Peristalsis
a. Wave-like contractions that moves food through the
digestive tract (Myenteric plexus/Auerbach’s plexus)
b. Wave of relaxation before wave of contraction
i. Wave of relaxation in front of bolus
ii. Wave of contraction behind bolus, propelling it
through the digestive tract.
vi. Stomach
1. Located in the abdomen
2. Storage tank for food
3. Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
4. Contains thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects epithelial cells on
stomach wall from acidic pH (3)
5. Can hold up to 2 liters of food
6. Thick Muscular layer:
a. Produce churning action
7. Rugae:
a. Large folds allowing the stomach to stretch
8. Chyme:
a. Paste-like substance that forms when food begins to be broken down
9. Pyloric Opening:
a. Opening between stomach and small intestine
10. Pyloric Sphincter
a. Thick, ring of smooth muscle around pyloric opening
11. Hunger pangs:
a. Stomach is stimulated to contract by low blood glucose levels usually
12-24 hours after a meal
12. Regulation of Stomach Secretions:
a. Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin, histamine increasing stomach
secretions
b. Cephalic phase:
i. 1st phase
ii. Stomach secretions are initiated by sight, smell, taste, or
thought of food
c. Gastric Phase:
i. 2nd phase
ii. Partially digested proteins and distention of stomach promote
secretion
d. Intestinal Phase:
 i. 3rd phase
ii. Acidic chyme stimulates neuronal reflexes and secretions of
hormones, inhibiting gastric secretions by negative feedback
loops.
13. Movement in Stomach
a. Mixing waves:
i. Weak contraction
ii. Thoroughly mix food to form chyme
b. Peristaltic Waves:
i. Stronger contraction
ii. Force chyme toward and through pyloric sphincter
c. Hormonal and neural mechanisms stimulate stomach secretions
d. Stomach empties every 4 hours after regular meal, 6-8 hours after
high fatty meal
 14. Cells in the Stomach

CELLS OF THE GASTRIC GLANDS Secretions

Surface mucous cells Mucin (ALKALINE)
Neck mucous cells Mucin (Acidic)
Parietal cells HCl and Intrinsic Factor
Chief cells Pepsinogen and Lipase
G Cells/Enteroendocrine cells Gastrin
 vii. Small Intestine
1. 6 Meters in length
2. MAJOR ABSORPTIVE organ
3. Chyme takes 3-5 hours to pass through
4. Contains enzymes to further breakdown food
5. Contains secretions for protections against chyme’s acidity
6. PARTS of Small Intestine:
a. Duodenum
i. 25 mc long
ii. Contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, granular cells,
endocrine cells
iii. Contains microvilli and many folds
iv. Contains bile and pancreatic ducts
b. Jejunum
i. 2.5 meters long and absorbs nutrients the most
c. Ileum
i. 3.5 meters long
viii. Large Intestine
1. Absorption of water from indigestible food
2. PARTS:
a. Cecum
i. First part of large intestine connecting to the small
intestine’s ileum at the ileocecal junction
1. Ileocecal valve
ii. Where the appendix is attached to
1. Appendix is a 9cm structure that is often
removed
2. Said to play a role in the immune system
due the presence of lymphatic cells
b. Colon
i. 1.5 meters long
ii. 4 regions:
1. Ascending
a. Right Colic/Hepatic Flexure
2. Transverse
a. Left Colic/Splenic Flexure
3. Descending
4. Sigmoid
c. Rectum
i. Straight tube that begins at sigmoid and ends at
anal canal
d. Anal Canal
i. Last 2-3cm of digestive tract
ii. Food takes 18-24 hours to pass through
 iii. Feces is the product of water, indigestible food, and
microbes
1. Microbes synthesize Vitamin K
ix. Liver
1. Weighs at about 3 lbs.
2. In right upper quadrant of the abdomen
3. Right, left, caudate, quadrate lobes
a. Caudate = ANTERIOR
i. Near the inferior Vena Cava
b. Quadrate = POSTERIOR
4. Porta:
a. Gate where blood vessels, ducts, nerves, enter and exit
5.
6. Receives blood from hepatic artery
7. Liver Ducts:
a. Hepatic Duct
i. Transports bile out of liver
b. Common hepatic duct
i. Where left and right hepatic ducts meet
c. Cystic Duct
i. From the gallbladder
ii. Joins common hepatic duct
d. Common Bile Duct
i. Formed from common hepatic duct and cystic duct
8. Functions of Liver:
a. Digestive and excretory functions
b. Stores and processes nutrients
c. Detoxifies harmful chemicals
d. Synthesizes new molecules
e. Secretes 700ml of bile each day
i. Bile dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid and breaks
down lipids
1. Vagus nerve tells Gallbladder to CONTRACT
a. Releases bile into the duodenum
2. In the duodenum, Secretin is produced, and this tells the Liver to SECRETE more Bile into the
Gallbladder
a. In the duodenum, Cholecystokinin is produced, and will then cause the Gallbladder
to CONTRACT and secrete more bile into the duodenum
3. In the duodenum, Bile salts also stimulate bile secretion and 90% of these bile salts are
reabsorbed in the Ileum, returned to the liver.
1. Vagus nerves tells Pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes in pancreatic juices.
2. In the duodenum, secretin is produced, and this tells the Pancreas to secrete watery
solution rich in bicarbonate ions
3. In the duodenum, cholecystokinin is produced, and this tells the Pancreas to release a
secretion rich in digestive enzymes.
 x. Gallbladder
1. Small sac on inferior surface of liver
2. Stores and concentrates bile
xi. Pancreas
1. Located posterior to stomach, in inferior part of left upper quadrant
2. Three parts:
a. Head
i. Near midline of the body
b. Body
c. Tail
i. Extends to the left, touches the spleen
3. Two Functional Tissues:
a. Endocrine Tissues
i. Secretes HORMONES
ii. Pancreatic Islets
iii. INSULIN and GLUCAGON
b. Exocrine Tissues
i. Produces DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
5. Digestive Process
a. 4 Steps:
i. Digestion:
1. Breakdown of food occurs in stomach and mouth
ii. Propulsion
1. Moves food through digestive tract includes swallowing and
peristalsis
iii. Absorption
1. Primarily in duodenum and jejunum of small intestine
iv. Defecation
1. Elimination of waste in the form of feces
b. Hierarchy of Digestion:
i. Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides
ii. Lipids
1. Fatty Acids
2. Monoglycerides
iii. Proteins
1. Amino acids
c. Carbohydrate Digestion
i. In the mouth and duodenum, Polysaccharides split into Disaccharides by
Salivary and Pancreatic Amylases.
ii. Disaccharides broken down into Monosaccharides by Disaccharidases in the
epithelium of small intestine
iii. These monosaccharides contain glucose.
1. These are absorbed in the epithelium of the small intestine by
cotransport with Na+ into intestinal epithelium
iv. Glucose carried to Hepatic Portal Vein to Liver, then enters most cells by
facilitated diffusion
d. Lipid Digestion
i. Bile salts emulsify lipids
1. Bile salts come from liver
ii. Lipase breaks down lipids which form micelles
1. Lipase comes from the Pancreas
iii. Micelles come in contact with epithelium of small intestine, then diffuse
with cells where they are packaged and released into lacteals
iv. Lipids are stored in adipose tissue and liver
 e. Protein Digestion
i. Proteins are split into polypeptides by Pepsin secreted by the stomach.
ii. Polypeptides are then broken down into peptides by enzymes secreted by
the pancreas
1. Enzymes being trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase
iii. Peptides are then broken down into amino acids by Peptidases in the
Epithelium of small intestine
iv. Amino acids are then absorbed into the epithelium of small intestine
1. Actively transported into cells with help from GH and Insulin
2. Amino acids are used to build new proteins

6. Water and Minerals

a. Water can move across intestinal wall in either direction
b. Depends on osmotic conditions
c. 99% of water entering intestine is absorbed
d. Minerals are actively transported across the wall of small intestine