Chapter4 Soil Classification

Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan
Chapter 4
Soil
Classification
© 2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly
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accessible website, in whole or in part.
4.1 Introduction
Soils with similar properties may be classified into groups and
subgroups based on their engineering behavior.
Two elaborate classification systems that use the grain-size

distribution and plasticity of soils are commonly used by soils
engineers. These are:
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials classification systems, which are mostly used by state
and county highway departments.
The Unified Soil Classification System, which is preferred by

geotechnical engineers.
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4.2 AASHTO Classification System

The current AASHTO classification system in present use is
given in the table below and on the following slide.
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The systems work by classifying the major groups as A-1
through A-7.
A-1 through A-3 are granular materials, where 35% or less

of the particles pass through the No. 200 sieve.
A-4 through A-7 are soils where more than 35% pass
through the No. 200 sieve.
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These are mostly silt and clay-type materials.
The classification system is based on the following criteria:
1. Grain Size
Gravel: Fraction passing the 75 mm sieve and retained on the No.

10 U.S. sieve.
Sand: Fraction passing the No. 10 U.S. sieve and retained on the
No. 200 U.S. sieve.
Silt and Clay: Fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve.
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2. The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the
soil have a plasticity index of 10 or less.
The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a

plasticity index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders are encountered, they are

excluded from the portion of the soil sample on which
classification is made. However, the percentage of such
material is recorded.
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To classify a soil according to Table 4.1, the test data are
applied from left to right.
By process of elimination, the first group from the left into

which the test data will fit is the correct classification.
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For the evaluation of the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade
material, a number called the group index is also incorporated
with the groups and subgroups of the soil.
This number is written in parentheses after the group or subgroup

designation.
The group index is given by the equation

GI = (F -35) éë0.2+0.005(LL- 40)ùû +0.01(F -15)(PI -10)
F = percent passing the No. 200 sieve
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index
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Below are some rules for determining the group index:
1. If the previous equation yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as

zero.
2. The group index calculated from the previous equation is rounded off
to the nearest whole number.
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-
5, and A-3 is always 0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6
and A-2-7, use the partial group index for PI, or
GI = 0.01(F -15)(PI -10)
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4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

The Unified Soil Classification System is presented in the
table below.
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The system classifies soils into two broad categories:
1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less
than 50% passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start
with a prefix of either G or S. G stands for gravel or gravelly soil, and S
for sand or sandy soil.
2. Fine-grained soils with 50% or more passing through the No. 200
sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of M, which stands for
inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, or O for organic silts and clays. The
symbol Pt is used for peat, muck, and other highly organic soils.
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Other symbols are also used for the classification:
W – well graded
P – poorly graded
L – low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
H – high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)
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For proper classification according to this system, some or
all of the following information must be known:
1. Percent of gravel – that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-

mm sieve and retained on the No. 4 sieve.
2. Percent of sand – that is, the fraction passing the No. 4

sieve and retained on the No. 200 sieve.
3. Percent of silt and clay – that is, the fraction finer than
the No. 200 sieve.
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4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation
(Cc).
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil

passing the No. 40 sieve.
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The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are GW,
GP, GM, GC, GC-GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, and GP-GC.
Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained soils are CL,

ML, OL, CH, MH, OH, CL-ML and Pt.
The group names of various soils classified under the unified

classification system can be determined using figures shown
on the following slides.
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Using the previous figures, one needs to remember that in a
given soil,
Fine fraction = % passing No. 200 sieve
Coarse fraction = % retained on No. 200 sieve
Gravel fraction = % retained on No. 4 sieve
Sand fraction = (% retained on No. 200 sieve) – (%

retained on No. 4 sieve)
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4.4 Visual Identification of Soils

Coarse-grained soils are relatively easier to identify, and the visual
description can include the following information:
- Grain size distribution (well graded or poorly graded)
- Grain size (e.g., fine, medium, or coarse sand)
- Grain shape (e.g., angular, sub-rounded)
- Color
- Presence of any fines – are the fines clayey or silty?
- Homogeneity
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Fine grained soils are identified by their dry strength by
crushing a dry lump of soil.
Silts have low dry strength, and clays have high dry
strength.
When moist, clays feel sticky between the fingers, and silts
feel gritty.
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Fines can also be identified as clays or silts based on their
dilatancy.
The test for dilatancy involves placing a moist pat of fines in

the palm and shaking it vigorously to see how quickly the
water rises to the surface of the soil pat.
Dilatancy is quick in silts and slow in clays.
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The figure below shows a rough guide for visually
identifying the fines on the basis of dry strength and
dilatancy.
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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Two elaborate classification systems that use the grain-size

The American Association of State Highway and Transportation

The Unified Soil Classification System, which is preferred by

4.2 AASHTO Classification System

4.2 AASHTO Classification System

4.2 AASHTO Classification System

A-1 through A-3 are granular materials, where 35% or less

4.2 AASHTO Classification System

The classification system is based on the following criteria:

Gravel: Fraction passing the 75 mm sieve and retained on the No.

4.2 AASHTO Classification System

The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a

3. If cobbles and boulders are encountered, they are

4.2 AASHTO Classification System

By process of elimination, the first group from the left into

4.2 AASHTO Classification System

This number is written in parentheses after the group or subgroup

The group index is given by the equation

4.2 AASHTO Classification System

1. If the previous equation yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as

GI = 0.01(F -15)(PI -10)

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

L – low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)

H – high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

1. Percent of gravel – that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-

2. Percent of sand – that is, the fraction passing the No. 4

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained soils are CL,

The group names of various soils classified under the unified

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

4.3 Unified Soil Classification System

Fine fraction = % passing No. 200 sieve

Coarse fraction = % retained on No. 200 sieve

Gravel fraction = % retained on No. 4 sieve

Sand fraction = (% retained on No. 200 sieve) – (%

4.4 Visual Identification of Soils

- Grain size distribution (well graded or poorly graded)

- Grain size (e.g., fine, medium, or coarse sand)

- Grain shape (e.g., angular, sub-rounded)

- Presence of any fines – are the fines clayey or silty?

4.4 Visual Identification of Soils

4.4 Visual Identification of Soils

The test for dilatancy involves placing a moist pat of fines in

Dilatancy is quick in silts and slow in clays.

4.4 Visual Identification of Soils

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