[To a civil engineer hydraulics is the study and analysis of fluids when in motion and stationary]

Water Surface Profiles

The water surface profile is a measure of how the flow depth changes longitudinally. The
profiles are classified based on the relationship between the actual water depth (y), the normal
depth (yn) and the critical depth (yc). Normal depth is the depth of flow that would occur if the
flow was uniform and steady, and is usually predicted using the Manning's or Chezy’s
Equation. Critical depth is defined as the depth of flow where energy is at a minimum for a
particular discharge.

Gradually-varied flow (GVF)

Is a steady non-uniform flow in an open channel with gradual changes in its water surface
elevation. The evaluation of GVF profiles under a specific flow discharge is very important
in hydraulic engineering.
If the depth of flow in channel changes gradually over a long length ,the flow is said to be
gradually varied flow GVF
For artificial channels (rectangular or trapezoidal in crpss sections Manning’s and Cezy’s)
formulae are applicable in determining the slope of the energy line with the following
notations
Z=height of bottom of channel above datum
y= depth of flow
v=mean velocity of flow
Sf =slope of energy line
So= slope of channel bottom
Q= discharge through channel

Based on the flow profile above and applying Bernoulli equation and energy equation, the
water surface slope can be expressed as

y ( So  Sf ) ( So  Sf ) V
  , when  Fr
dx v2 [1  ( Fr ) 2 ] gy
[1  ]
gy
As y is the depth of flow of water and x the distance measured along the channel bottom.
y
Equals variation of depth of water along the channel. This is called slope of the water
dx
surface thus
 y
(i) 0 , y is constant or depth of flow is constant
dx
y y
(ii) When > 0 or is +ve means depth of flow of water is increasing in the direction
dx dx
of the water flow, the profile obtained is called backwater curve

y y
(iii) When < 0 or is –ve means depth of flow of water is decreasing in the direction of
dx dx
flow of water. The profile is called drawdown curve

Rapidly varied flow (RVF)

Is a type of non -uniform open-channel flow where the fluid depth changes rapidly over a
small reach of the channel. The phenomenon of a hydraulic jump is one type of rapidly varied
flow, will be presented first, and followed by a discussion of the specific force.

A steady non-uniform flow in a prismatic channel with gradual changes in its water- surface
elevation is named as gradually-varied flow (GVF). The backwater produced by a dam or weir
across a river and drawdown produced at a sudden drop in a channel are few typical examples
of GVF so a rapidly varied flows (RVF) occurs over a short distance near an obstacle while a
gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances
Surges in open channel
The sudden changes of flow in open channel results in the increase or decrease of flow depth is
called the "SURGE" in open channel. This could take place when there is a breaching of dams
due to earthquake or regulating the hydropower sluice gates.
 Question 1 (GVF)
A rectangular channel 10m wide and 3.0m deep flows at a velocity of 1.0m/s, the bed slope of
channel is 1:4000, the flow is regulated such that the energy line has a slope of 0.00004,
Determined the rate of change of depth of water in the channel

Solution
Channel width b =10m, depth of flow y=3.0m, velocity of flow V=1.0m/s

1
, bed slope i   0.00025
4000
dh( y )
Let rate of change of depth of water 
dx
dh( y ) (ib  ie ) 0.00025  0.00004 0.00021
Such that = =   0.000217
dx V2 12 0.966
[1  ] [1  ]
gy 9.81  3
Rate of change in depth in channel =0.000217m

Question 2
A rectangular channel 4m wide conveys 10m3/s at a depth of 2.5m there is a sharp rise of 0.2m
at the channel bottom. Assuming no losses at the transition, determine the depth downstream
of the bottom step does the water surface rise or fall at the step
Solution

Discharge Q =10m3/s
Width b=4m
∆z=0.2m
Flow velocity and specific energy at section 1 are
 Q 10m 3 / s
V1    1m / s
A1 4m  2.5m
V12 1
E1  y1   2.5   2.58m
2g 9.81  2
Since there are no losses
E2 = E1 - 0.2 = 2.55-0.2=2.35m

Q2
Now E2  y 2 
2g 4 22

Substitute value E2 , Q1andA2  4 y2

y 23  2.35 y 22  0.32  0
Solve by trial y = 2.20, 0.405, and -0.345
The upstream is subcritical ie Fr <1 so y2 = 2.29m
Water level downstream of transition = 0.2+2.29=2.49m
Water surface drops by 2.5m-2.49m = 0.01m

Question 3
A rectangular channel 40m wide flows at a depth of 2.5m when the bed slope is 1:11000,
Determine the length of back water curve caused by an afflux of 2m due to the presence of a
weir across the channel downstream
Take Manning’s n=0.003
Channel width b=40m

Afflux ( h2  h1 ) = 2m

Channel depth = 2.5m

⸫ h2 = 2.0m+2.5m = 4.5m
Bed slope

1
ib   0.0000909
11000
Manning’s n=0.03

Area of flow at section 1 = A1  b  y  40  2.5  100m

2
Wetted perimeter P1  b  2 y1  40  2  2.5  45m

A1 100
R   2.22m
P1 45
2 1
1
ManningsvelocityV   R3  S 2
n
2 1
1
V  2.22  0.0000909 2
3
= 33.33×1.7018×0.0095 = 0.541m/s
0.03
v12 0.5412
Specific energy at section 1 E1   y1   2.5  2.5149m
2g 2  9.81
From continuity equation V1 A1  V2 A2

V1  A1 0.541  100 0.541  100

V2     0.3m / s
A2 b  y2 40  4.5

⸫ A2  b  y  40  4.5  180m
2

Wetted perimeter at section 2 P2  b  2 y2  40  2  4.5  49m

A2 180
Hydraulic mean radius R    3.673m
P2 40

V22 0.32
Specific energy at section 2 E2  y 2   45   4.504m
2g 19.62
Average velocity from average depth as

y1  y 2 2.5  4.5
y average    3.5m
2 2
⸫ Average velocity
VA v  b  y1 V1  y1 0.54  2.5
Vaverage  1 1  1    0.3857m / s
Aaverage b  y average y average 3.5

R1  R2 2.22  3.673
Average hydraulic mean radius Raverage    2.9465
2 2
2 1 2 1
1 1
Compute energy slope ie  Vaverage   R  ie  0.3857 
3 2
 2.9465  ie2
3

n 0.03
 0.3857 2
ie  ( )  0.00003167
68.534
Length of back water curve L
E2  E1 4.504  2.5148 1.9892
   33584.3m
ib  ie 0.0000909  0.00003167 0.00005923
Length of backwater curve =33584.3m