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Architecture, Green Design & Sustainability-Concepts and Practices

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 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079

Architecture, Green Design & Sustainability – Concepts and Practices

Richard N. LACROIX *, and Eleni STAMATIOU**
* IT Consultant, Researcher
**Architect-Dr. Town Planner, Regional Planner,
* E. Stamatiou, 144 Amfitheas Ave, Athens 17562, Greece; e-mail: rlacroix@otenet.gr

Abstract: - This paper discusses the concept of “Sustainable Architecture” and of “Green Design”. It makes a
special reference to heating, ventilating and cooling systems efficiency, to sustainable building materials and
recycling and to waste management. Reference is made to improved energy efficient building designs with
examples of the passive solar building design with the three approaches of direct, indirect and isolated solar
gains and to active solar building design. A comparison of solar technologies is attempted with a discussion of
the passive house concepts and practices and how that technology compares with the Active solar technology,
with reference to details from Ireland’s Glengarriff Active Solar House project.

Key-Words: - Architecture, Green Design, Sustainability, Sustainable Design, Sustainable Development,

Passive House, Active Solar House

1 Introduction
Architecture to be consistent with sustainability
applies techniques of sustainable design to
architecture [12]. From the root words sus– (under)
+ tenere (to hold); to keep in existence; to maintain
or prolong [1]. Sustainable architecture and green
architecture for that matter is framed by the larger
discussion of sustainability and the pressing
economic and political issues of our world [2]. In
Figure 1: K2 sustainable apartments in Windsor,
the broad context, sustainable architecture, seeks to
Victoria, Australia by Hansen Yuncken (2006)
minimize the negative environmental impact of
features passive solar design, recycled and
buildings by enhancing efficiency and moderation in
sustainable materials, photovoltaic cells, wastewater
the use of materials, energy, and development space
treatment, rainwater collection and solar hot water.
[3]. Sustainability in architecture is related to the
Source: Hansen Yuncken (2006)
concept of "green architecture" or “green building”
[4]. The two terms, however are often used
interchangeably to relate to any building designed
2.1 Heating, Ventilation and Cooling System
with environmental goals in mind [5], often
regardless of how they actually function in regard to Efficiency
such goals[6]. The most important and cost effective element of an
efficient heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
(HVAC) system is a well insulated building. A more
efficient building requires less heat generating or
2 Architecture & Sustainable Energy dissipating power, but may require more ventilation
Energy efficiency over the entire Life cycle of a capacity to expel polluted indoor air (Figure 2).
building is the most important single goal of
sustainable architecture [7]. Architects use many
different techniques to reduce the energy needs of
buildings and increase their ability to capture [8] or
generate [9] their own energy (Figure 1).
 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079
Figure 2: The passivhaus standard combines a
variety of techniques and technologies to achieve
ultra-low energy use.
Significant amounts of energy are flushed out of
buildings in the water, air and compost streams. Off
the shelf, on-site energy recycling technologies can
effectively recapture energy from waste hot water
and stale air and transfer that energy into incoming
fresh cold water or fresh air. Recapture of energy for
uses other than gardening from compost leaving
buildings requires centralized anaerobic digesters.
Site and building orientation have a major effect on
a building’s HVAC efficiency.
Passive solar building design allows buildings to
harness the energy of the sun efficiently without the
use of any active solar mechanisms such as
photovoltaic cells or solar hot water panels.
Typically passive solar building designs incorporate
materials with high thermal mass that retain heat
effectively and strong insulation that works to
prevent heat escape. In addition, low energy
buildings typically have a very low surface area to
volume ratio to minimize heat loss. This means that
sprawling multi-winged building designs (often
thought to look more "organic") are often avoided in
favor of more centralized structures. Traditional cold
climate buildings such as American colonial saltbox
designs provide a good historical model for
centralized heat efficiency in a small scale building.
Windows are placed to maximize the input of heat-
creating light while minimizing the loss of heat
through glass (a terrible insulator). In the northern
hemisphere this usually involves installing a large
number of south facing windows to collect direct
sun and severely restricting the number of north
facing windows. Certain window types, such as
double or triple glazed windows with gas filled “air”
spaces and low emissivity (low-E) coatings, provide
much better insulation than conventional glass
windows. Preventing excess solar gain in the
summer months is important to reduce cooling
needs. Deciduous trees are often planted in front of
windows to block excessive sun in summer with
their leaves but allow light through in winter when
their leaves disappear. Louvers or light shelves are
installed to allow the sunlight in during the winter
(when the sun is lower in the sky) and keep it out in
the summer (when the sun high in the sky).
Coniferous or evergreen plants are often planted to
the north of buildings to shield against cold north
winds.
In colder climates, heating systems are a primary
focus for sustainable architecture because they are
typically one of the largest single energy drains in
buildings.
In warmer climates where cooling is a primary
concern passive solar designs can also be very
effective. Masonry building materials with high
thermal mass are very valuable for retaining the cool
temperatures of night throughout the day. In addition
builders often opt for sprawling single story
structures in order to maximize surface area and heat
loss. Buildings are often designed to capture and
channel existing winds particularly the especially
cool winds coming from nearby bodies of water.
Many of these valuable strategies are employed in
some way by the traditional architecture of warm
regions, such as southwestern mission buildings.
In climates with four seasons, an integrated energy
system will increase in efficiency: when the building
is well insulated, when it is sited to work with the
forces of nature, when heat is recaptured (to be used
immediately or stored), when the heat plant relying
on fossil fuels or electricity is greater than 100%
efficient, and when renewable energy is utilized.
2.2 Architecture and Social Sustainability
Sustainable design can help to create a sustainable
way of living within a community [10]. While the
existing social constructs can be seen to influence
architecture, the opposite can also be true. An
overtly socially sustainable building, if successful,
can help people to see the benefit of living
sustainably [11]; this can be seen in many of Rural
Studio's buildings in and around Hale County,
Alabama, for example. The same can be said for
environmentally sustainable design, in that
 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079
architecture can lead the way for the greater
community.
Architectural design can play a large part in
influencing the ways that social groups interact.
Communist Russia's Constructivist Social
condensers are a good example of this, buildings
which were designed with the specific intention of
controlling or directing the flow of everyday life to
"create socially equitable spaces".
Art can be a powerfully positive social force. It can
help to reduce stress in many situations, lowering
the risk of stress-related health problems, both
physical and mental. Art can also be a way of
individual expression, which can add to the
community as a whole. Hundertwasser's buildings
in Austria are an inspiring example of art giving
back to the community.
2.3 Building placement
One central and often ignored aspect of sustainable
architecture is building placement [16]. Although
many environmentalists envision the ideal home or
office structure as an isolated place in the middle of
the woods this kind of placement is often
detrimental to the environment. First such structures
often serve as the unknowing frontlines of suburban
sprawl. Second isolated structures usually increase
the energy consumption required for transportation
and lead to unnecessary auto emissions. Ideally
most building should avoid suburban sprawl in
favor of the kind of light urban development
articulated by the New Urbanist movement. Careful
mixed use zoning can make commercial, residential,
and light industrial areas more accessible for those
traveling by foot, bicycle, or public transit, as
proposed in the Principles of Intelligent Urbanism.
2.4 Sustainable Building Materials & technologies to maintain the building environment
Recycling
Some examples of sustainable building materials
include recycled denim or blown-in fiber glass
insulation, sustainably harvested wood, bamboo,
which is one of the strongest and fastest growing
woody plants, and non-toxic low-VOC glues and
paints [18].
Some sustainable architecture incorporates recycled
or second hand materials. The reduction in use of
new materials creates a corresponding reduction in
embodied energy (energy used in the production of
materials). Often sustainable architects attempt to
retro-fit old structures to serve new needs in order to
avoid unnecessary development [19].
2.5 Waste management
Sustainable architecture focuses on the on-site use
of waste, incorporating things such as grey water
systems for use on garden beds, and composting
toilets to reduce sewage [20]. These methods, when
combined with on-site food waste composting and
off-site recycling, can reduce a house's waste to a
small amount of packaging waste [21].
3 Improved Energy Efficient Building
Designs
Active solar devices such as photovoltaic solar
panels help to provide sustainable electricity for any
use. Roofs are often angled toward the sun to allow
photovoltaic panels to collect at maximum
efficiency, and some buildings even move
throughout the day to follow the sun. The Samundra
Institute of Maritime Studies (SIMS)at Lonavala,
near Pune India, has the longest photovoltaic wall in
the world, at over ninety meters long [22].
Undersized wind turbines (normal turbines are often
over 250 feet) are becoming increasingly practical
for individual consumers and builders. Active solar
water heating systems have long provided heating-
specific energy in a sustainable manner.
Occasionally houses that use a combination of these
methods achieve the lofty goal of "zero energy" and
can even begin generating excess energy for use in
other structures[23].
3.1 Passive solar building design
Passive solar building design involves the modeling,
selection and use of appropriate passive solar
at a desired temperature range (usually based
around human thermal comfort) throughout the
sun's daily and annual cycles. As a result it generally
minimizes the use of active solar, renewable energy
and especially fossil fuel technologies [24].
Passive solar building design is only one part of
thermally efficient building design, which in turn is
only one part of sustainable design, although the
terms are often used erroneously as synonyms
(passive solar design does not relate to factors such
as ventilation, evaporative cooling, or life cycle
analysis unless these operate solely by the sun).
 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079
The available technologies can be categorized from
which basic design choices can be made. These
include three basic ways for harnessing the sun's
energy, and several other techniques:
3.1.1 Direct solar gain
Direct gain involves using the positioning of
windows, skylights and shutters to control the
amount of direct solar radiation reaching the interior
spaces themselves, and to warm the air and surfaces
within the building (Figure 3) [24].
Figure 3: Elements of passive solar design, shown
in a direct gain application
The use of sun-facing windows and a high-mass
floor is a short-cycle example of this. John Hait's
"Passive Annual Heat Storage" (PAHS) method is
an example of an annualized solar approach
primarily using this path.
Direct solar gain systems suffer because historically
there were no reasonably priced transparent
thermally insulating materials with R-values
comparable to standard wall insulation. This is now
changing in Europe [14], [15], where super
insulated windows have been developed and are
widely used to help meet the German Passive House
standard.
In the northern hemisphere, a design that uses too
much south-facing glass can result in excessive
heating and an uncomfortably bright living space at
certain times of the year. Conversely, in the southern
hemisphere the same is true for north-facing glass.
3.1.2 Indirect solar gain
Indirect gain, in which solar radiation is captured by
a part of the building envelope designed with an
appropriate thermal mass (such as a water tank or a
solid concrete or masonry wall behind glass). The
heat is then transmitted indirectly to the building
through conduction and convection (Figure 4) [24].
Figure 4: Passive solar design, using a trombe wall
Examples of this are Trombe walls, water walls and
roof ponds. The Australian deep-cover earthed-roof,
innovated by the Baggs family of architects, is an
annualized example of this path [24].
In practice indirect solar gain systems have suffered
from being difficult to control, and from the lack of
reasonably priced transparent thermally insulating
materials.
3.1.3 Isolated solar gain
Isolated gain, involves passively capturing solar
heat and then moving it passively into or out of the
building using a liquid (for example using a
thermosiphon solar space heating system) or air
(perhaps using a solar chimney), either directly or
using a thermal store.
Sun-spaces, greenhouses, and "solar closets" are
alternative ways of capturing isolated heat gain
from which warmed air can be taken. In practice it
has been found that some owners use these
structures as living spaces, heating them with
conventional fuels and therefore significantly
increasing, rather than reducing, the environmental
impact of the building.
Don Stephens' "Annualized Geo-Solar" (AGS)
heating is an annualized example of this option,
which offers the advantages of preventing over-
heating when living spaces are already deemed
warm enough, and of extending time-delays until
such heat will be desired.
3.2 Active solar building design
Active solar technologies are employed to convert
solar energy into usable heat, cause air-movement
for ventilation or cooling, or store heat for future
use. Active solar uses electrical or mechanical
equipment, such as pumps and fans, to increase the
usable heat in a system. Solar energy collection and
 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079

utilization systems that do not use external energy, with electricity to power a heat pump of less than
like a solar chimney, are classified as passive solar 9kWh/m2/a [25].
technologies [24].
Solar hot water systems, except those based on the 4.1 The Passive House Concept & Practice
thermosiphon, use pumps or fans to circulate water, The term Passive house (Passivhaus in German)
an anti-freeze mixture, or air through solar
[17] refers to the rigorous, voluntary, Passivhaus
collectors, and are therefore classified under active
standard for energy use in buildings. It results in
solar technology. The solar collectors can be non
ultra-low energy buildings that require little energy
concentrating or 'flat-plate', or of various
for space heating. A similar standard, MINERGIE-
concentrating designs. Most solar-thermal collectors
P®, is used in Switzerland. The first Passivhaus
have fixed mounting, but can have a higher
buildings were built in Darmstadt, Germany, in
performance if they track the path of the sun
1990, and occupied the following year. In
through the sky. Solar trackers, used to orient
September 1996 the Passivhaus-Institut was
photovoltaic arrays, may be driven by either passive
founded in Darmstadt to promote and control the
or active technology. Because passive solar systems
standard. Since then more than 6,000 Passivhaus
require no additional energy to operate and therefore
buildings have been constructed in Europe, most of
have zero operating costs, emit no greenhouse
them in Germany (Figures 6, 7, 8) and Austria, with
gasses in operation, and can have low maintenance
others in various countries world-wide.
costs, passive solar technologies should be given
full consideration.

4 Solar Technology Comparison

Active solar-thermal systems, via small pumps or
fans, can have significantly higher solar savings
fractions than passive solar technologies due to
greatly-enhanced heat transfer and transport. An
interesting hybrid approach is to use photo voltaic to
power pumps or fans (Figure 5).
Figure 6: One of the original Passive Houses at
Darmstadt, Germany (2006)

Figure 5: Solar trackers may be driven by active or

passive solar technology

A computer analysis, using thermodynamics and

heat transfer software, can be used to compare the Figure 7: Baufritz design.in Freiburg, Germany
performance of various active and passive solar (2006)
thermal strategies.
An experimental house built to active solar
principles was built in 2004 in county Cork, Ireland.
The house, which was monitored throughout 2005
using sensors, is apparently achieving a net energy
consumption for space heating and hot water along
 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079
Figure 8: Exterior detail of Baufritz design.in
Freiburg, Germany (2006)
Despite the name, the standard is not confined only
to houses. Several office buildings, schools,
kindergartens and a supermarket have also been
constructed to the standard. Although it is mostly
applied to new buildings, it has also been used for
refurbishments.
4.2 The Passive House standard
The Passivhaus standard requires that the building is
within the following limits [26]:
 The building must not use more than (≤) 15
kWh/m²a (4,755 Btu/ft²/yr) in heating energy
 The specific heat load for the heating source at
design temperature must be less than 10 W/m²
(3.17 Btu/ft²)
 With the building pressurized to 50Pa by a
blower door, the building must not leak more
air than 0.6 times the house volume per hour
(n50 ≤ 0.6/h).
 Total primary energy consumption (primary
energy for heating, hot water and electricity)
must not be more than 120 kWh/(m²a) (38,039
Btu/ft²/yr)
These standards are much higher than houses built
to most normal building codes (Figure 9).
Figure 9: The dark colors on this thermogram of a
Passivhaus (right) show how little heat is escaping
compared to a traditional building (left).
For comparisons, see below.
 In the United States the standard results in a
building that requires space heating energy of 1
BTU per square foot per heating degree day,
compared with about 5 to 15 BTUs per square
foot per heating degree day for a similar
building built to meet the 2003 Model Energy
Efficiency Code. This is between 75 to 95%
less energy for space heating and cooling than
current new buildings that meet today's US
energy efficiency codes [19].
 In the United Kingdom, an average new house
built to the Passive House standard would use
77% less energy for space heating compared to
the (2002?) Building Regulations [21].
 In Ireland, it is calculated that a typical house
built to the Passive House standard instead of
the 2002 Building Regulations would consume
85% less energy for space heating and cut
space-heating related carbon emissions by
94%.
National partners within the 'consortium for the
Promotion of European Passive Houses' (PEP) are
thought to have some flexibility to adapt these limits
locally [14].
4.3 The Passive House Quality of Life
By their design, passive houses usually have the
following traits:
 the air is fresh, but dry (esp. in winter)
 because of the high resistance to heat flow
(high R-value insulation), there are no "outside
walls" which are colder than other walls
 since there are no radiators, there's more space
on the room's walls
 inside temperature is homogenous, it is
impossible to have single rooms (e.g. the
sleeping rooms) at a different temperature from
the rest of the house
 the temperature changes only very slowly -
with ventilation and heating systems switched
off, a passive house typically loses less than
0.5° centigrade per day (in winter)
 opening windows only has a very limited effect
- after the windows are closed, the air very
quickly returns to the "normal" temperature
5 The Glengarriff Active Solar House
As oil and gas prices rise and the need to design
buildings with minimal exposure to future energy
price increases becomes apparent, a multitude of
technologies and design strategies are emerging out
of the burgeoning sustainable building industry to
 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079

show the way ahead. This information is taken from
Ernst Posthuma of Solarcon which sheds light on a
demonstration project in west Cork in Ireland that
combines passive and active solar gains to
remarkable effect (Figures 10, 11, 12) [25].
controls of a modern car; something that we take for
granted today. The house was monitored throughout
the entire year of 2005, and data of more then 50
sensors was collected at five-minute intervals [25].

Figure 12: Glengarriff Active Solar House - To

avoid overheating and overcooling, vents below
floor level are opened and closed automatically by
Figure 10: Glengarriff Active Solar House in west
the Building Management System (2005).
cork, Ireland (2005)
The Glengarriff Active Solar House uses two
innovative technologies [22], namely Convector
ventilation technology (Figure 13) and hot vent
technology (Figure 14).

Figure 11: Glengarriff Active Solar House - Floor

Vents cover the length of the sunspace, as viewed
from west to east (2005).

Contrary to the ‘Passive House’, the building is not

primarily constructed to keep energy inside, but to
make optimum use of available ambient resources.
This is achieved through a number of measures. The Figure 13: Convector Ventilation Technology
first and most important basic measure is the
orientation [25], to make maximum use of solar
radiation. The second—one that sounds like a luxury
—is a large conservatory or ‘sunspace’ covering the
south façade in order to trap that radiation or to
exclude it from the inner building on hot days. The
third measure is a very large solar panel on the roof
[25], and the fourth is a heat pump [25]. Although
each of the latter three systems can work
independently with their own control device, the
performance optimization is taken care of by a
building management system, which communicates Figure 14: Hot Vent Technology
with each controller and sends orders to them for
coordinate behavior. That sounds very complicated, The results of these combined technologies show a
but is in fact no more complex than the electronic net energy consumption for heating and hot water
 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079
and pump activity of less then 9 kWh per square
meter per year in the form of electricity. All other
energy for heating is extracted from the
environment, leaving us with a bill of € 270.00 for
heating and hot water for the entire year [25].
 Without Sunspace: Heating load = 9,564 kWh
Area = 170 m² Heating load/m² = 56.3 kWh/m²
 With Sunspace fitted: Heating load = 6,088 kWh
Area = 200 m² Heating load/m² = 30.44 kWh/m²
Saving on the heating load per m² = 45.9 %
This shows that the ‘passive house’ is one possible
solution to solving energy problems and the ‘active
solar house’ may be another, equally sustainable
approach.
6 Conclusion
The concept of “Sustainable Architecture” and of
“Green Design” with its demonstrated results from
around the world, will remain practical for many
years to come. Through improvements made the
last five years to insulation of new building
materials and to heating, ventilating and cooling
systems efficiency, new and older homes can
become more sustainable and energy efficient. As
new passive solar building designs have shown with
their uses of the three approaches of direct, indirect
and isolated solar gains and to active solar building
design the prospects are encouraging for sustainable
living. The passive house is a representative solution
to solving energy problems while the active solar
house as Ireland’s Glengarriff Active Solar House
project offers equally effective results as a
sustainable approach.
References:
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a-t’il un avenir?, Le Pommier, France, 2002 (in
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 IASME / WSEAS Inernational.Conference Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26,
2007, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems And Sustainable
Development (EEESD'07), paper 562-079

[19] Washington State Law Mandates Green

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esolarhouse3.php
[26] Cepheus quality limits, Retrieved: 2007-04-13,
http://www.cepheus.de/eng/index.html

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