CITY MONTESSORI SCHOOL

ALIGANJ CAMPUS I
Session: 2020-21

NAME : FAIZA ANSARI

CLASS : XII
SECTION : C
ROLL NO. : 2
SUBJECT : CHEMISTRY
TOPIC : POLYMERS

INTERNAL EXTERNAL
EXAMINER EXAMINER

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my

CHEMISTRY teacher “Ms. Tripti” who gave me this golden
opportunity and whose valuable guidance has been the ones that
helped me complete this project successfully on the topic,
“POLYMER”. Her suggestions and instructions have served as the
major contributor towards the completion of this project.
I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a
lot in finalizing this project within a limited time frame.
Faiza Ansari
XII C

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INDEX

S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 Introduction 4
2 Natural Polymers 5
3 Some Natural Polymers 6
4 Starch 7-8
5 Cellulose 9-10
6 Proteins 11-12
7 Nucleic Acids 13-14
8 Natural Rubber 15-16
9 Synthetic Polymers 17
10 Some Synthetic Polymers 18
11 Polyethylene 19-20
12 Teflon 21-22
13 Bakelite 23-24
14 Nylon 25-26
15 Synthetic Rubber 27-28
16 Bibliography 29

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INTRODUCTION
The word polymer is derived from the classical Greek
word poly meaning “many” and meres meaning “parts.” Simply
stated, a polymer is a long-chain molecule that is composed of a
large number of repeating units of identical structure. Certain
polymers, such as proteins, cellulose, and silk, are found in nature,
while many others, including polystyrene, polyethylene, and nylon,
are produced only by synthetic routes. In some cases, naturally
occurring polymers can also be produced synthetically. An
important example is natural (Hevea) rubber, known as
polyisoprene in its synthetic form.
Due to their broad spectrum of properties, both synthetic and
natural polymers play essential and ubiquitous roles in everyday
life.
Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as
polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that
are fundamental to biological structure and function.
Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via
polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers.
Their consequently large molecular mass, relative to small
molecule compounds, produces unique physical
properties including toughness, high elasticity, viscoelasticity, and a
tendency to form amorphous and semi-crystalline structures rather
than crystals.

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NATURAL POLYMERS
Natural Polymers are those substances which are obtained
naturally. These polymers are formed either by the process of
addition polymerization or condensation polymerization.
Natural Polymers are extensively found in nature. Our body too is
made up of many natural polymers like nucleic acids, proteins, etc.
The Cellulose is another natural polymer which is a main structural
component of the plants. Most of the natural polymers are formed
from the condensation polymers and this formation from the
monomers, water is obtained as a by-product.
Some of the Natural polymers also include DNA and RNA, these
polymers are very much important in all the life processes of all the
living organisms. This messenger RNA is the one that makes
possible peptides, proteins, and enzymes in a living body. Enzymes
inside the living organisms help the reactions to happen and the
peptides makes up the structural components of hair, skin, and also
the horns of a rhino. The other natural polymers are
polysaccharides or called as sugar polymers and polypeptides such
as keratin, silk, and the hair. Natural rubber is also a natural
polymer which is made of hydrogen and carbon.

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SOME NATURAL POLYMERS

STARCH
It is a polymer of a α -D-glucose. In a starch molecule, hundreds of
α -D-glucose of molecules are joined together through a particular
type of linkage called α-glycosidic linkage. Starch os the main food
reserve of plants.

CELLULOSE
It is a polymer of β-D-glucose and consists of hundreds of β-D-
glucose units joined together through β-glycosidic linkages. It is the
main structural material of plants.

PROTEINS
Proteins are polypeptides and are formed by the polymerisation of
amino acids. They are long chain polymers and maybe cross-linked
also. A protein molecule is composed of 20-1000 amino acids in a
highly organised arrangement. Proteins act as building blocks in
animals.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic Acids are the polymers of various nucleotides and consists
of base-sugar-phosphate units They are present in the
chromosomes of cell nuclei and control the hereditary characters.

NATURAL RUBBER
Natural rubber, obtained from rubber tree, is a polymer of 2-
methylbuta-1, 3-diene, which is commonly known as isoprene.
Thus, natural rubber may be described as polyisoprene.

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STARCH
Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of
numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds.
This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as energy
storage. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets.
Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odourless powder that is
insoluble in cold water or alcohol. It consists of two types of
molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the
branched amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch generally
contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight.
Glycogen, the glucose store of animals, is a more highly branched
version of amylopectin.

Structure

Starch molecules arrange themselves in the plant in semi-crystalline

granules. Each plant species has a unique starch granular size: rice
starch is relatively small (about 2 μm) while potato starches have
larger granules (up to 100 μm).

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Characterstics

Starch is manufactured in the green leaves of plants from excess

glucose produced during photosynthesis and serves the plant as a
reserve food supply. Starch is stored in chloroplasts in the form of
granules and in such storage organs as the roots of
the cassava plant, the tuber of the potato, the stem pith of sago, and
the seeds of corn, wheat, and rice. When required, starch is broken
down, in the presence of certain enzymes and water, into its
constituent monomer glucose units, which diffuse from the cell to
nourish the plant tissues. In humans and other animals, starch from
plants is broken down into its constituent sugar molecules, which
then supply energy to the tissues.

Uses

Most commercial starch is made from corn, although

wheat, tapioca, and potato starch are also used. Commercial starch
is obtained by crushing or grinding starch-containing tubers or
seeds and then mixing the pulp with water; the resulting paste is
freed of its remaining impurities and then dried.

Aside from their basic nutritional uses, starches are used in brewing
and as thickening agents in baked goods and confections. Starch is
used in paper manufacturing to increase the strength of paper and
is also used in the surface sizing of paper. Starch is used in the
manufacture of corrugated paperboard, paper bags and boxes, and
gummed paper and tape. Large quantities of starch are also used in
the textile industry as warp sizing, which imparts strength to the
thread during weaving.

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CELLULOSE
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n,
a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to
many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an
important structural component of the primary cell wall of green
plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of
bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most
abundant organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose content
of cotton fibre is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%, and that of
dried hemp is approximately 57%.

Structure

Cellulose has no taste, is odourless, is hydrophilic with the contact

angle of 20–30 degrees, is insoluble in water and most
organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable.
Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through
β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer. The
multiple hydroxyl group on the glucose from one chain
form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a
neighbour chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side
and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength.

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Characterstics

Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline.

Cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25 MPa
to become amorphous in water. Many properties of cellulose
depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number
of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Plant-derived
cellulose is usually found in a mixture with hemicellulose, lignin,
pectin and other substances, while bacterial cellulose is quite pure,
has a much higher water content and higher tensile strength due to
higher chain lengths. Cellulose pulp may also be treated with strong
acid to hydrolyze the amorphous fibril regions, thereby producing
short rigid cellulose nanocrystals.

Uses

Cellulose is the major constituent of paper, paperboard, and card

stock. Electrical insulation paper: Cellulose is used in diverse forms
as insulation in transformers, cables, and other electrical
equipment. Cellulose derivatives, such as microcrystalline cellulose
(MCC), have the advantages of retaining water, being a stabilizer
and thickening agent, and in reinforcement of drug tablets.
Cellulose can be converted into cellophane, a thin transparent film.
Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such
as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose which are used in
wallpaper paste. Cellulose is further used to make hydrophilic and
highly absorbent sponges. Cellulose is the raw material in the
manufacture of nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) which is used in
smokeless gunpowder.

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PROTEINS
Among natural polymer proteins are one of the strong candidates,
which can be used for the development of new blend and/or
composite material. Proteins are polypeptides, consisting of one or
more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast
array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic
reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, providing
structure to cells, and organisms, and transporting molecules from
one location to another.

Structure

Proteins are prepared from the basic unit called amino acids. The
protein's structure is broadly categories into four structural forms,
which are called primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
structure. The primary structure of a protein is a linear polymer
with a string of amino acids coupled by peptide bonds. Secondary
structures of proteins are usually very regular in their conformation.
Alpha Helices” and “Beta Pleated Sheets” are two types of secondary
structures and they are majorly stabilized by hydrogen bonds. he
tertiary structure of a protein is the three‐dimensional structure and
is stabilized by the series of hydrophobic amino acid residues and
by disulfide bonds formed among two cysteine amino acid. The
quaternary structure occupies the bunch of abundant individual
peptide chains into an ultimate shape.

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Characteristics

Proteins, which are composed of amino acids, serve in many roles in

the body. They act as structural components such as keratin of hair
and nail, collagen of bone etc. Proteins are the molecular
instruments through which genetic information is expressed. They
execute their activities in the trans-port of oxygen and carbon
dioxide by hemoglobin and special enzymes in the red cells. They
function in the homeostatic control of the volume of the circulating
blood and that of the interstitial fluids through the plasma proteins.
They are involved in blood clotting through thrombin, fibrinogen
and other protein factors. They act as the defense against infections
by means of protein antibodies.

Uses

Proteins are essential to life functions. They have multiple uses in

the body, including enzymes (which make biological processes react
faster), hormones (which control the body's processes) and
antibodies (which protect organisms from disease). Proteins also
are used by the body to transport materials in cells and provide
structure. Foods high in protein include meat, fish, milk and eggs,
all of which come from animal sources. Vegetarians and vegans
need to monitor their food intake to ensure they get all the essential
amino acids because individual vegetables high in proteins do not
contain all the essential amino acids in one food source.

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NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are the biopolymers, essential to all known forms of
life. The term nucleic acid is the overall name for DNA and RNA.
They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made
of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a
nitrogenous base. If the sugar is a compound ribose, the polymer is
RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is derived from ribose as
deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Structure

Nucleic acids are polynucleotides—that is, long chainlike molecules

composed of a series of nearly identical building blocks called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogen-containing
aromatic base attached to a pentose (five-carbon) sugar, which is in
turn attached to a phosphate group. Each nucleic acid contains four
of five possible nitrogen-containing bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).

Characteristics

The nucleobases found in the two nucleic acid types are different:
adenine, cytosine, and guanine are found in both RNA and DNA,
while thymine occurs in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA. The sugars

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and phosphates in nucleic acids are connected to each other in an
alternating chain through phosphodiester linkages.[20] In
conventional nomenclature, the carbons to which the phosphate
groups attach are the 3'-end and the 5'-end carbons of the sugar.
This gives nucleic acids directionality, and the ends of nucleic acid
molecules are referred to as 5'-end and 3'-end. The nucleobases are
joined to the sugars via an N-glycosidic linkage involving a
nucleobase ring nitrogen and the 1' carbon of the pentose sugar
ring.

Uses

Nucleic acids are the “blueprints” to our bodies. These include

DNAs and RNAs. These nucleic acids also help to build our body by
translating its information into proteins which make up our body.
They together make genes, which are the pieces of genetic
information that make us who we are. The Nucleoside adenine (A)
is a cardiac drug. It is used on people on the ambulance and
emergency room who are having unexplainable tachycardia that
hasn’t yet reached Ventricular tachycardia (cardiac death that looks
like a rhythm) and VT requires a shockable reset. All in all nucleic
acids (CHONP) are used to create the body and create new sections
of the body as we age.

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NATURAL RUBBER
Natural rubber consists of polymers of the organic compound
isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus
water. Types of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are
classified as elastomers. Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in
the form of the latex from the rubber tree or others. Natural rubber
is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone
or in combination with other materials. In most of its useful forms,
it has a large stretch ratio and high resilience, and is extremely
waterproof.

Structure
Natural rubber is an addition polymer that is obtained as a milky
white fluid known as latex from a tropical rubber tree. Natural
rubber is from the monomer isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene).
Since isoprene has two double bonds, it still retains one of them
after the polymerization reaction. Natural rubber has the cis
configuration for the methyl groups.

Characteristics

Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's

stress–strain behavior exhibits the Mullins effect and the Payne
effect and is often modeled as hyperelastic. Rubber strain
crystallizes. Due to the presence of weakened allylic C-H bonds in
each repeat unit, natural rubber is susceptible to vulcanisation as
well as being sensitive to ozone cracking. The two main solvents for
rubber are turpentine and naphtha (petroleum). Because rubber
does not dissolve easily, the material is finely divided by shredding
prior to its immersion. An ammonia solution can be used to prevent

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the coagulation of raw latex. Rubber begins to melt at
approximately 180 °C (356 °F).

Uses
The flexibility of rubber is appealing in hoses, tires and rollers for
devices ranging from domestic clothes wringers to printing presses;
its elasticity makes it suitable for various kinds of shock absorbers
and for specialized machinery mountings designed to reduce
vibration. The resistance of rubber to water and to the action of
most fluid chemicals has led to its use in rainwear, diving gear and
as a lining for storage tanks, processing equipment and railroad
tank cars. Because of their electrical resistance, soft rubber goods
are used as insulation and for protective gloves, shoes and blankets;
hard rubber is used for articles such as telephone housings, parts
for radio sets, meters and other electrical instruments.

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SYNTHETIC POLYMER
The polymers which are synthesized in the laboratory are called
synthetic polymers. Synthetic polymers are human-made polymers
derived from petroleum oil. From the utility point of view they can
be classified into three main categories: thermoplastics, elastomers
and synthetic fibers. They are found commonly in a variety of
consumer products such as honey, glue, etc.

A wide variety of synthetic polymers are available with variations in

main chain as well as side chains. The back bones of common
synthetic polymers such as polythene, polystyrene and poly
acrylates are made up of carbon-carbon bonds, whereas hetero
chain polymers such as polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes,
polysulfides and polycarbonates have other elements (e.g. oxygen,
sulfur, nitrogen) inserted along to the backbone. Also silicon forms
similar materials without the need of carbon atoms, such as
silicones through siloxane linkages; these compounds are thus said
to be inorganic polymers. Coordination polymers may contain a
range of metals in the backbone, with non-covalent bonding
present.

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SOME SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
POLYETHYLENE
Polyethylene is vinyl polymer, made from the monomer ethylene.
Polyethylene is made by addition or radical polymerization of
ethylene (olefin) monomers. (Chemical formula of Ethene - C2H4).

TEFLON
Polytetrafluoroethylene, also known as Teflon, whose monomer is
tetrafluoroethene, is made with four ingredients -- fluorspar,
hydrofluoric acid, chloroform, and water, which are combined in a
chemical reaction chamber heated to between 1094-1652°F (590-
900°C).

BAKELITE
Bakelite is a polymer made up of the monomers phenol and
formaldehyde. This phenol-formaldehyde resin is a thermosetting
polymer (Chemical Formula-(C6H6O.CH2O)x).

NYLON
Nylon is made from 1,6-diaminohexane and adipic acid by splitting
out water molecules (-H from the amine and -OH from acid). The
units are joined to make the ester group.

SYNTHETIC RUBBER
Synthetic rubber, like other polymers, is made from various
petroleum-based monomers. The most prevalent synthetic rubber is
styrene-butadiene rubbers (SBR) derived from the
copolymerization of styrene and 1,3-butadiene.

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POLYETHYLENE
Polyethylene or polythene is the most common plastic in use today.
It is a linear, man-made, addition, homo-polymer, primarily used
for packaging (plastic bags, plastic films, geomembranes, containers
including bottles, etc.). As of 2017, over 100 million tones of
polyethylene resins are being produced annually, accounting for
34% of the total plastics market.

Many kinds of polyethylene are known, with most having the

chemical formula (C2H4)n. Polyethylene is usually a mixture of
similar polymers of ethylene, with various values of n. It can be low
density or high density: low density polyethylene is extruded using
high pressure (1000-5000 atm) and high temperature (520 Kelvin),
while high density polyethylene is extruded[verification needed]
using low pressure (6-7 atm) and low temperature (333-343
Kelvin). Polyethylene is usually thermoplastic, however it can be
modified to become thermosetting instead, for example in cross-
linked polyethylene.

Structure
The ingredient or monomer is ethylene (IUPAC name ethene), a
gaseous hydrocarbon with the formula C2H4, which can be viewed
as a pair of methylene groups (–CH2–) connected to each other.
Typical specifications are <5 ppm for water, oxygen, and other
alkenes. Acceptable contaminants include N2, ethane (common
precursor to ethylene), and methane. Ethylene is usually produced
from petrochemical sources, but also is generated by dehydration of
ethanol.

Characteristics

The mechanical strength of polyethylene is relatively lower than

other plastics. The rigidity and the hardness of these polymers are

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also relatively low. Polyethylene is known to be highly ductile.
Furthermore, this plastic is known to possess very high impact
strength. This synthetic polymer exhibits strong creep when placed
under a persistent force. Polyethylenes usually have a waxy texture.
The melting points of commercial grades of high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) lie
in the range of 120 – 180 degrees Celsisus. The melting point of the
commercially available low-density polyethylene (LDPE) usually
lies in the range of 105 – 115 degrees Celsius. Polyethylene is known
to be a very good insulator of electric current since it offers high
electrical treeing resistance.

Uses

The primary uses of polyethylene are in packaging film, garbage

bags, grocery bags, insulation for wires and cables, agricultural
mulch, bottles, toys, and houseware. Polythene is also used in trays,
fruit juice containers, milk containers, crates, and food packaging
products. Polyethylene is an incredibly useful commodity plastic,
especially among product design companies. Because of the
diversity of PE variants, it is incorporated into a wide range of
applications. Unless it is required for a specific application, we don’t
typically use polyethylene as part of the design process at Creative
Mechanisms. For some projects, a part that will eventually be mass-
produced in PE can be prototyped with other, more prototype-
friendly materials like ABS.

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TEFLON
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of
tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The commonly
known brand name of PTFE-based formulas is Teflon by Chemours,
a spin-off from DuPont, which originally discovered the compound
in 1938. Another popular brand name of PTFE is Syncolon by Synco
Chemical Corporation. PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high
molecular weight compound consisting wholly of carbon and
fluorine. PTFE is hydrophobic: neither water nor water-containing
substances wet PTFE, as fluorocarbons demonstrate mitigated
London dispersion forces due to the high electronegativity of
fluorine. PTFE has one of the lowest coefficients of friction of any
solid.

Structure
The molecular structure of Teflon is based on a chain of carbon
atoms, the same as all polymers. Unlike some other fluoropolymers,
in Teflon this chain is completely surrounded by fluorine atoms.
The bond between carbon and fluorine is very strong, and the
fluorine atoms shield the vulnerable carbon chain. This unusual
structure gives Teflon its unique properties. In addition to its
extreme slipperiness, it is inert to almost every known chemical.
PTFE is a thermoplastic polymer, which is a white solid at room
temperature, with a density of about 2200 kg/m3. According to
research, its melting point is 600 K (327 °C; 620 °F).[16] It
maintains high strength, toughness and self-lubrication at low
temperatures down to 5 K (−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F), and good
flexibility at temperatures above 194 K (−79 °C; −110 °F).

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Characteristics
Teflon is considered to be the most slippery material that exists. It
withstands extreme temperatures, is an excellent insulator and is
resistant to nearly all industrial chemicals and solvents. Because it
has a low coefficient of friction, it is a superb choice for applications
in which materials will slide against one another and is often used
for products that need an anti-stick surface.

Teflon – a polytetrafluoroethylene – has outstanding dielectric

properties that remain stable with frequency and temperature. It
resists ignition and does not promote the spread of flames. Teflon
has a uniquely high bulk density. Because of its superior chemical
and thermal properties, PTFE is often used as a gasket material
within industries that require resistance to aggressive chemicals
such as pharmaceuticals or chemical processing.

Uses
The major application of PTFE, consuming about 50% of
production, is for the insulation of wiring in aerospace and
computer applications (e.g. hookup wire, coaxial cables). This
application exploits the fact that PTFE has excellent dielectric
properties, especially at high radio frequencies, making it suitable
for use as an excellent insulator in connector assemblies and cables,
and in printed circuit boards used at microwave frequencies.
Combined with its high melting temperature, this makes it the
material of choice as a high-performance substitute for the weaker
and lower-melting-point polyethylene commonly used in low-cost
applications.

In industrial applications, owing to its low friction, PTFE is used for

plain bearings, gears, slide plates, seals, gaskets, bushings and more
applications with sliding action of parts, where it outperforms acetal
and nylon.

Its extremely high bulk resistivity makes it an ideal material for

fabricating long-life electrets, the electrostatic analogues of
permanent magnets.

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BAKELITE
Bakelite, trademark of phenol-formaldehyde resin, trademarked
synthetic resin invented in 1907 by Belgian-born American chemist
Leo Hendrik Baekeland. A hard, infusible, and chemically resistant
plastic, Bakelite was based on a chemical combination of phenol
and formaldehyde (phenol-formaldehyde resin), two compounds
that were derived from coal tar and wood alcohol (methanol),
respectively, at that time. This made it the first truly synthetic resin,
representing a significant advance over earlier plastics that were
based on modified natural materials.

Structure

Bakelite is an early polymer, comprised of a phenol-formaldehyde

mixture, with Phenol being derived from coal tar, and
Formaldehyde derived from methanol. Bakelite was the first truly
synthetic, as well as the first commercially produced, synthetic
resin. It is a hard and tough material that is unaffected by heat,
electricity, water, chemicals, most acids, and has an incredibly wide
range of applications. The natural physical appearance of Bakelite is
a brown/amber iridescent lustre. It can also be made into different
colours, but this depends on filler that it is mixed with during the
manufacturing process.

Characteristics
Bakelite is a non-conductive and heat resistant material makes it
ideal for electrical insulators. It can be molded very quickly,
decreasing production time. Moldings are smooth, retain their
shape and are resistant to heat, scratches, and destructive solvents.

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It is also resistant to electricity, and prized for its low conductivity.
The characteristics of Bakelite made it particularly suitable as a
molding compound, an adhesive or binding agent, a varnish, and a
protective coating. Bakelite was particularly suitable for the
emerging electrical and automobile industries because of its
extraordinarily high resistance to electricity, heat, and chemical
action.

Uses

Bakelite was used for its non-conductive and heat-resistant

properties in electrical insulators, and also in radios and telephones.
It was also used in other diverse products such as jewelry,
kitchenware, and toys. Bakelite was used for many things when it
first came to light. In the 1920s, Bakelite production of jewelry came
popular. Since this element has a low electrical conductivity and
high heat resistance it can be used in manufacturing electrical
switches and machine parts of electrical systems. It is a
thermosetting polymer and Bakelite has high strength meaning it
basically retains its form even after extensive molding. Phenolic
resins are also extensively used as adhesives and binding agents.
They are further used for protective purposes as well as in the
coating industry. Further, Bakelite has been used for making the
handles of a variety of utensils. It is one of the most common and
important polymers that are used to make different parts of many
objects.

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NYLON
Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers,
based on aliphatic or semi-aromatic polyamides. Nylon is a
thermoplastic silky material that can be melt-processed into fibers,
films, or shapes. It is made of repeating units linked by amide links
similar to the peptide bonds in proteins. Nylon polymers can be
mixed with a wide variety of additives to achieve many different
property variations. Nylon polymers have found significant
commercial applications in fabric and fibers (apparel, flooring and
rubber reinforcement), in shapes (molded parts for cars, electrical
equipment, etc.), and in films (mostly for food packaging).

Structure

Nylon is made from two monomers, each containing six carbon

atoms, so the product is known as Nylon 6,6. On reaction, an OH
group is lost from the acid molecule and one hydrogen from the
amine molecule, so a molecule of water is eliminated, and an amide
link (see image, right) is formed between the two monomers. Nylon
is lighter, stronger and offers high wear resistance.

Characteristics
Nylon has good tenacity and the strength is not lost with age. It has
good elasticity which makes it much suitable for the apparel
purposes. The heat conductivity of the nylon fabrics vary depending
upon the fabric construction, the type of nylon (staple/filament)
used in the construction etc. Nylon fabrics retain their shape and
appearance after washing. It has good stability and does not shrink.
Nylon fabrics are smooth, non-absorbent and dry quickly. Dirt
doesn’t cling to this smooth fibre, which can be washed easily or can
be even cleaned by using a damp cloth. Nylon whites are commonly
referred as colour scavengers and should be washed separately to

25
avoid greying. They easily pick up colour and dirt from the wash
water.

Uses
Harness straps and suspension lines are also made from nylon
fibers as well as tents, sleeping bags, sails, rope, tennis strings,
fishing poles and lines, etc. Today nylon is the most common fiber
for textiles and it is one of the strongest and most common fabrics
on the market. Mess fabric is a common product made of Nylon
which is used in making high fashion dresses, shell fabric with
embroidery and bid work. High-end dressing gowns are made of
using nylon net. Chiffon fabric - Nylon is used for making chiffon
fabric.

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SYNTHETIC RUBBER
A synthetic rubber is any artificial elastomer. They are polymers
synthesized from petroleum byproducts. About 32-million metric
tons of rubbers are produced annually in the United States, and of
that amount two thirds are synthetic. Global revenues generated
with synthetic rubbers are likely to rise to approximately US$56
billion in 2020. Synthetic rubber, just like natural rubber, has many
uses in the automotive industry for tires, door and window profiles,
seals such as O-rings and gaskets, hoses, belts, matting, and
flooring. They offer a different range of physical and chemical
properties, so can improve the reliability of a given product or
application. Synthetic rubbers are superior to natural rubbers in
two major respects, thermal stability and resistance to oils and
related compounds. They are more resistant to oxidizing agents for
example, such as oxygen and ozone which can reduce the life of
products like tires.

Structure
Adhesives with synthetic rubber share relatively low adhesion and
cohesion at temperatures above approx. 40° C. Their resistance to
ageing is lower than other adhesive components, but better than
with natural rubber. They are less suited for UV exposure, but that
can be compensated for by adding stabilizers.

Characteristics
In general, synthetic rubber offers better resistance to abrasion than
natural rubber, as well as superior resistance to heat and the effects
of aging. Many types of synthetic rubber are flame-resistant, so it
can be used as insulation for electrical devices. It also remains
flexible at low temperatures and is resistant to grease and oil. It is

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solid, flexible and durable. It hardens when it's cooled. It can be
molded when heated. It is resistant to heat light and chemicals.

Uses

Synthetic rubber like natural rubber has uses in the automotive

industry for tires and window profiles, houses, bells, flooring and
dampeners. Synthetic rubber can be mostly used with natural
rubbers as a single polymer or in mixtures. In Between 65% and
70% of all rubber goes into the production of tires. Other main
applications include binders for paper coating, carpet backing and
molded articles such as thin gloves.
Expanded rubber for mattresses and sponges are used. It is also
found in very thin films for condoms, gloves or balloons, and in
thicker films for the production of casting molds, truck and car
tyres, engine mounts and various rubber / metal compounds.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
The content for this project has been taken from the following
sources:

Websites
• en.wikipedia.org
• www.britannica.com
• www.chemistryworld.com
• www.quora.com

Books
• Nootan ISC Chemistry class xii(Dr. H.C. Srivastava)

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