ELE3300: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING FOR MECHANICAL

CHAPTER ONE: ELECTRONICS

Dr. Isiyaku Abubakar
 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• A transistor is a semiconducting device that can be used to Amplify signal
or as a switching device.

• It is a combination of semiconducting pieces.

• There are two basic types of transistors.

-The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), and
-Field Effect Transistor(FET)

The BJT consists of 2 back to back PN junctions made into a single

semiconducting crystal.
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Transistor and its • There are two basic construction of
Equivalent Circuit transistor
• - PNP construction and
The two junctions • - NPN construction
connected together
make a 3 region
layer called
Collector (C), Base
(B) and Emitter
(E).

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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
1.Emitter: Emitter terminal is the heavily doped region as compared to base
and collector. This is because the work of the emitter is to supply charge
carrier to the collector via the base. The size of the emitter is more than
base but less than the collector.

2.Base: The size of the base region is extremely small (about 1 μm), it is
less than emitter as well as the collector. The size of the base is always
kept small so that charge carriers coming from the emitter and entering
base will not recombine in the base region and will be directed towards the
collector region. The base is very lightly doped

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
3.Collector: The collector terminal is moderately doped, and the size of the
collector region is slightly more than emitter region because all the charge
carriers coming from the emitter recombine at base and heat is released in
this process. Thus, it is necessary for the collector terminal to be large
enough so that it can dissipate the heat and the device may not burn out.

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• The working of a transistor can be demonstrated by Transistor Man
Cartoon

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
Transistor Biasing
Transistor Biasing is a way of setting a transistors DC operating voltage
or current conditions to the correct level so that the transistor can perform
the duty of amplifying the AC signal connected to it.
The two conditions for Biasing transistor correctly are:

1. The Emitter base junction is always forward biased and

2. The collector base junction is always reversed biased

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
Transistor Biasing

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
Transistor Currents
It is worth noting that collector current carries 98% of the total emitter
current. IE =IC +IB

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
Transistor Configurations
Basically there are three configurations of transistor depending on the
transistor operation required.

- Common Base Configuration

- Common Emitter Configuration
- Common Collector Configuration

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
Common Base Transistor
• The common base transistor
configuration provides a low
input impedance while offering a
high output impedance.
Although the voltage is high, the
current gain is low and the
overall power gain is also low
when compared to the other
transistor configurations
available. The other salient
feature of this configuration is
that the input and output are in
phase.
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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Common collector:
This transistor configuration is also
known as the emitter follower
because the emitter voltage follows
that of the base. Offering a high input
impedance and a low output
impedance it is widely used as a
buffer. The voltage gain is unity,
although current gain is high. The
input and output signals are in phase.
In view of these characteristics, the
emitter follower configuration is used
as a buffer circuit providing a high
input impedance to prevent loading
of the previous stage, and a low
output impedance to drive following
stages
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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Common emitter:
This transistor configuration is
probably the most widely used.
The circuit provides a medium
input and output impedance levels.
Both current and voltage gain can
be described as medium, but the
output is the inverse of the input,
i.e. 180° phase change. This
provides a good overall
performance and as such it is often
thought of as the most widely used
configuration.
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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Transistor Current Relationships
• Common Base
IC
•α=
I E

• Common Emitter

IC
β=
IB
• Common Collector

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Transistor Current Relationships Summary:

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Example 1.1
• The following currents readings are obtained in a transistor connected in
Common Base configuration. IE = 2mA and IB = 20μA. Calculate the
values of IC ,α and β.
• Solution:

I C  I E  I B  2  10 3  20  10 6  1.98  10 3 A  1.98 mA

I 1 .9 8  1 0  3
  C
  0 .9 9
I E 2  1 0 3
IC 1 .9 8  1 0 3
   6
 99
IB 20  10
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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Example 1.2
• A bipolar NPN transistor, in common emitter configuration has a DC
current gain, (Beta) value of 200. Calculate the base current IB required to
switch a resistive load of 4mA
• Solution:
• Here the load is connected to the collector. Hence

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Transistor Operation Modes
• As a non-linear devices, the transistors have four distinct modes of
operation, which describe the current flowing through them. These are:
• Saturation – The transistor acts like a short circuit. Current freely flows
from collector to emitter.
• Cut-off – The transistor acts like an open circuit. No current flows from
collector to emitter. ·
• Active – The current from collector to emitter is proportional to the
current flowing into the base. ·
• Reverse-Active – Like active mode, the current is proportional to the base
current, but it flows in reverse. Current flows from emitter to collector
(not, exactly, the purpose transistors were designed for).
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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• A typical Example of Transistor Characteristic

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Transistor Equivalent Circuit
Whenever the Equivalent circuit of an electrical/electronic component is
mentioned, it refers to as the representation of the component with basic
circuit elements like Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor, Voltage source and
current source.
• Therefore the equivalent circuit of a transistor provides its circuital
representation.
• This can be Using:
(i) The beta (β) of the Transistor or
(ii) Using the h-parameters of the transistor
The Transistor has DC and AC Equivalent Circuits for proper analysis
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Transistor and its • For Common base configuration:
Equivalent Circuit
• DC Equivalent
Circuit
In the DC Equivalent
Circuit the Input diode
acts like forward
biased diode and the
output diode acts like
a current source.

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• For Common Emitter Configuration the DC equivalent circuit will be
similar:

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 • Transistor AC Equivalent Circuit
Transistor and its • CB Configuration.
Equivalent Circuit
The AC Resistance of the
CB configuration is given
by:

Where IE is the emitter

current in mA

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 Transistor and its
Equivalent Circuit
• For CE configuration the AC 
Equivalent circuit is: The AC Resistance of the
CE configuration is given
by:

Where IB is the base

current in mA.
Also

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Transistor and its
Equivalent Circuit
• The Common Emitter
Transistor Amplifier
• The Common Emitter
is the most widely
used configuration of
the transistor
Amplifier. The Simple
form of CE Amplifier
is shown.

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• It has the following DC and AC
Equivalent Circuits
• DC • AC

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• From the DC equivalent Circuit we have:

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• From the AC Equivalent Circuit we have the following:

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Example 1.3

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Solution:
• The AC equivalent Circuit

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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Example 1.4

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Solution
• When the emitter capacitor is considered:

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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• But when the emitter bypass capacitor is removed the AC equivalent
circuit becomes:

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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Example 1.5
• For the Amplifier shown below:

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Solution

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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

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Transistor and its
Equivalent Circuit
Transistor as a Switch
The transistor can be use
as a switch when it is
operated at cut off region
There are several ways of
connecting transistor as a
switch. Here are some
examples

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

• Case 1
• Applying the base current will make the transistor to conduct and that
will pass the supply through the Load RL
• Case 2
• Here the load is connected to the collector. Therefore when the base
voltage is applied, the transistor will conduct and switch off RL, but
under zero IB the load will conduct
• Case 3
• This case is similar to case 1only that the relay will actuate the load
when the base voltage is applied.
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Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit

• For Case 1

• For Case 2

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 Transistor and its Equivalent Circuit
• Example 1.6 • Here the collector current is the
same as the Relay activation
current. From which

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 RC Amplifiers
• An RC coupled amplifier uses Resistors and Capacitors where resistor
R is used as a load and the capacitor C is used as a coupling element.
• Usually the coupling element (C) use to connect two amplifiers
together in a multi amplifier system.

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 RC Amplifiers

Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

• The frequency response of RC • The voltage and power gain are
amplifier provides constant gain low because of the effective load
over a wide frequency range, hence
most suitable for audio resistance.
applications. • They become noisy with age.
• The circuit is simple and has lower • Due to poor impedance
cost because it employs resistors
and capacitors which are cheap. matching, power transfer will be
• It becomes more compact with the
low
upgrading technology.

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 RC Amplifiers
• Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

• They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.

• Widely used as Voltage amplifiers

• Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the

final stages.

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 Power Amplifiers
• Power Amplifier is responsible for amplifying the power of the signal
after voltage amplification.
• For example in audio signals the power amplifier gives power to the
audio signal so that it can be played in the speaker.

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 Power Amplifiers
• For such Power amplification, the normal transistor can work. A
transistor that is manufactured for the purpose of power amplification
is called as a Power transistor.

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 Power Amplifiers
A Power transistor differs from the other transistors, in
the following factors:
• It is larger in size, in order to handle large powers.

• The collector region of the transistor is made large and

a heat sink is placed at the collector-base junction in
order to minimize heat generated.

• The emitter and base regions of a power transistor are

heavily doped.
• Due to the low input resistance, it requires low input
power.
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 Power Amplifiers
Differences between Power Amplifier and Voltage Amplifier
Voltage Amplifier Characteristic
• The base of the transistor should be
thin and hence the value of β should
be greater than 100.
• The resistance of the input resistor
Rin should be low when compared to
collector load RC.
• The collector load RC should be
relatively high. To permit high
collector load, the voltage amplifiers
are always operated at low collector
current.
• The voltage amplifiers are used for
small signal voltages.
Power Amplifier Characteristic
• The base of transistor is made
thicken to handle large currents.
The value of β being (β > 100)
high.
• The size of the transistor is made
larger, in order to dissipate more
heat, which is produced during
transistor operation.
• Transformer coupling is used for
impedance matching.
• Collector resistance is made low.
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 Power Amplifiers
• Power Amplifier can be similar to other Amplifiers.

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 Feedback in Amplifiers
• From our knowledge of Amplifier so far, we learnt that an amplifier
circuit amplify or increases the signal strength.

• However the amplifier amplifies the signals given to it including the

noise (unwanted) signal.

• These noise level in the amplifier can be reduced by using negative

feedback by injecting a fraction of output in phase opposition to the
input signal.

• The feedback circuit usually consists of Resistors.

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Feedback in
Amplifiers

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 Feedback in Amplifiers
Types of Feedback Amplifiers
Negative Feedback Amplifier
• The feedback in which the feedback energy Positive Feedback Amplifier
i.e., either voltage or current is out of phase
• The feedback in which the feedback energy
with the input and thus opposes it, is called
i.e., either voltage or current is in phase with
as negative feedback
the input signal and thus aids it is called
It has the following Advantages: as Positive feedback.
• Stability of gain is improved The positive feedback amplifier increases the
• Reduction in distortion gain of the output signal but it has the following
set backs.
• Reduction in noise
• Increasing distortion
• Increase in input impedance
• Instability
• Decrease in output impedance
• Some times the positive feedback can be used
• Increase in the range of uniform application as Oscillators.

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 Feedback in Amplifiers
• Classification of Feedback Systems
• There are four basic classifications of feedback amplifier system in
which the output signal is fed back to the input :

• Series-Shunt Configuration – Voltage in and Voltage out or Voltage

Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS).
• Shunt-Shunt Configuration – Current in and Voltage out or Current
Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS).
• Series-Series Configuration – Voltage in and Current out or Voltage
Controlled Current Source (VCCS).
• Shunt-Series Configuration – Current in and Current out or Current
Controlled Current Source (CCCS).
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Feedback in Amplifiers

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 Operational Amplifiers
• Op-Amp is a negative feedback amplifier with high voltage gain and
high input impedance that can amplify signals from 0 to 1,000,000Hz.

• Op-Amps are made with different internal configurations of Ics.

• It performs mathematical operations like Addition, Subtraction,

multiplication, differentiation, integration, comparator etc.

• The Op-Amp itself is a complete Amplifier but it is designed to work

with external resistors for proper and desired operations.

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 Operational
Amplifiers
• Op-Amp Symbol
• The Op-Amp consists of 5
terminals.

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 Operational Amplifiers
• Op-Amp Internal Structure

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Operational Amplifiers

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 • Operational Amplifiers
Op-Amp Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier or Negative Scale Non-Inverting Amplifier or Positive Scale

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 Operational Amplifiers
• Op-Amp Summer or Adder: Normally the inputs goes through the
inverting terminal.

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 Operational Amplifiers
• For the Adder or Summer we have:

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 Operational
Amplifiers
• Subtractor: in this case the
subtracted signal is connected to For the Subtractor We have:
the inverting terminal.

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 Operational Amplifiers
• Solution:
• Example 1.7
• Calculate the value of the Feedback
Resistor Rf for which the gain of the
amplifier below will be -1,000 if R1
is100 ohms.

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 Operational
Amplifiers
Solution:
Example 1.8
• Design an Op-Amp
Adder to provide the
following Summation:
V O    3 V 1  1 8 V 2  1 1V 3 
Use 198K resistor as the
feedback resistor. Draw
the Circuit.

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 Thyristors and Triacs
• Thyristors
• Thyristors also known as Silicon control rectifies are special diodes
that employ the use of gate to control the output.

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Thyristors and Triacs

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 Thyristors and Triacs
• Some Applications of Thyristors include:

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 Thyristors and Triacs
• Triac ( TRIode for AC)
• Triac on the other hand is like a diode that can allow the conduction in
both direction depending on the control.
• It finds applications in switching, phase control, chopper designs,
brilliance control in lamps, speed control in fans, motors etc.
• It can be referred to as two opposing SCR with common gate pulse.

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 Thyristors and Triacs
• Some Triacs

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 Oscillators
• An Oscillator may take any of the following Definitions:

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Oscillators

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 Oscillators
Tuned base and tuned collector Oscillators are examples of LC Oscillators

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•EXERCISE I
EXERCISE I
EXERCISE I
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