5.

4 Patterns and the Periodic Table

You have already learned that elements are pure substances that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances. You probably also know that the
element a pure substance that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances
periodic table is a powerful tool that chemists use to explain and predict
the properties of the elements (Figure 1).
1 18
1 H He
2 Period Group 13 14 15 16 17
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Figure 1 The elements of the

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
periodic table can be classified as
metals (shown in blue), non-metals Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(pink), and metalloids (green).

Table 1 Summary of Properties of Metals and Non-Metals Table 1 provides a summary of the
general properties of metals and non-
Property Metals Non-metals
metals. Note that hydrogen, H, has its
example nickel, Ni bromine, Br own unique colour. This is because it
state at room temperature solid solid, liquid, or gas has some properties in common with
the metals in the first column. However,
lustre shiny dull it lacks many of the characteristic
malleability generally malleable brittle (if solid) physical properties of metals at room
temperature. We cannot really classify
electrical conductivity conductors insulators
hydrogen as a metal, so we group it on
its own.
period a row of elements in the
periodic table
Chemical Periods and Groups
The periodic table also categorizes elements into periods and groups. Each
group a column of elements in the
periodic table with similar properties row of elements on the periodic table is called a period. Each column is a
alkali metals the elements (except
group of elements with similar properties. Four of the best-known groups of
hydrogen) in the first column of the elements are listed below:
periodic table (Group 1) • The Group 1 elements (with the exception of hydrogen) are the alkali
alkaline earth metals the elements in metals. These elements are soft, highly reactive metals (Figure 2).
the second column of the periodic table
(Group 2)
• The Group 2 elements are light, reactive alkaline earth metals.
halogens the elements in the seventeenth • The Group 17 elements are the halogens. They are one of the most
column of the periodic table (Group 17) reactive groups on the periodic table.
noble gases the elements in the • The Group 18 elements are noble gases. Unlike the halogens, the noble
eighteenth column of the periodic table gases are so stable that they rarely react with any other chemical.
(Group 18)

184 Chapter 5 • Chemicals and Their Properties NEL

 Figure 2 Lithium, sodium, and
potassium react at different rates with
water to produce flammable hydrogen
gas. The potassium reaction is so
vigorous that the hydrogen gas ignites.

nucleus

Atomic Structure
Why do elements behave so differently? The answer to this question lies in p n0

the structure of atoms. Scientists developed a simple model of the atom to n0 p

explain the properties of elements. In this model, most of the mass of the
atom is concentrated in an extremely small, dense, positively charged core Figure 3 Most of the atom’s volume is
called the nucleus (Figure 3). empty space. Most of the atom’s mass
is concentrated in the nucleus. The
Atoms are made up of three kinds of subatomic particles (Table 2). nucleus takes up only about 1/100 000
Table 2 Subatomic Particles of the volume of an atom.

Proton Neutron Electron C05-F10-UBOS10SB.ai

electrical charge positive neutral negative

symbol p+ no e−
location nucleus nucleus orbit around the nucleus DID YOU KNOW?
Feeling Dense?
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number of the If you could somehow squeeze all
element. For example, because carbon contains sixOntario
protons in its nucleus,
Science 10 SB the space out of your body’s atoms
its atomic number is 6. The elements of the periodic table are arranged in
0-17-635528-6 you would be smaller than a penny.
order of increasing atomic number. Atoms are electrically
FN neutral, with equal
C05-F10-UBOS10SB However, that “penny” would be as
heavy as you are right now.
numbers of protons and electrons. CO CrowleArt Group
Deborah Crowle
Electron Arrangements and the Pass 2nd pass
Approved
Bohr−Rutherford Diagram Not Approved
The Bohr−Rutherford diagram of the atom is a useful way of representing the Bohr−Rutherford diagram a model
arrangement of electrons around the nucleus for the first 20 elements. In representing the arrangement of electrons
Bohr−Rutherford diagrams, each electron orbit is shown as a ring around the in orbits around the nucleus of an atom
nucleus. Evidence indicates that only a limited number of electrons can
occupy each orbit. The first orbit can hold up to a maximum of two electrons.
The second and third orbits can each hold a maximum of 8 electrons. Elements WRITING TIP
with atomic numbers above 18 must have some electrons in the fourth orbit. Writing a Summary
Because all atoms are electrically neutral, the total number of electrons in these Write one clear sentence for each major
orbits must match the number of protons in the nucleus. Recall that this is point. For example, if summarizing the
Bohr–Rutherford diagrams, use separate
only a model of the atom. The actual behaviour of electrons is much more
sentences to explain the orbit of each
complicated, but this model meets our needs for now. electron.
We can use this model and the periodic table to help us predict the atomic
structures and properties of elements. Let’s use Bohr−Rutherford diagrams for
hydrogen, helium, lithium, and fluorine to illustrate this idea of electron orbits.
NEL 5.4 Patterns and the Periodic Table 185
 An atom of lithium is sometimes represented as Li-7. This means that
2p 2p
+ + this particular atom has a mass number of 7. Recall that the mass number is
1p+1p+ the total number of protons and neutrons. Lithium atoms always have three
2n02n0
protons, so this atom must also have four neutrons in its nucleus. To balance
the charge of the three protons, three electrons must be orbiting the nucleus.
H H HeHe The first orbit can hold up to two electrons. Since the third electron cannot
fit in the first orbit, it has to go in a second orbit (Figure 4).
Our atomic model suggests that the second orbit can accommodate
3p+3p+ 9p+9p+ up to eight electrons. So, as you proceed from element to element in the
4n04n0 10n10n
0 0
second period, the number of electrons in the second orbit increases by
one until there are eight: the maximum number. Therefore, fluorine has
seven electrons in its second orbit and neon has eight in its second orbit.
Li Li F F After neon, another orbit is required to accommodate the next set of eight
Figure 4 Bohr−Rutherford diagrams of electrons. The outermost electron of sodium, therefore, is in the third orbit
hydrogen (H-1), helium (He-4), lithium
(Li-7), and fluorine (F-19)
(Figure 5). Notice that the period, or row, number of an element tells you
how many electron orbits the atoms have. You can predict that elements 19
and 20, which are in the fourth row, have electrons in a fourth orbit. Beyond
this orbit, the model of the atom gets more complicated, but you need not be
concerned about these larger atoms for this course.

Electron Arrangements and Reactivity 2p2p

2p
+ +
+

The noble gases are known for their stability. They 2p

2p
+ 0
2p
2n
+0 +
2n
2n2n 0
0 0
11p + are so stable that they almost never react with other 2n2n0

12n0 elements. Why are they so stable? From experimental He

He
He
He
evidence, chemists infer that the outer electrons of He
He
an element are responsible
for the element’s reactivity.
Na Since the noble gases all 3p3p
3p+ +
+
10p
10p
10p
+ +
+
Figure 5 Bohr−Rutherford diagram of 3p
3p3p
4n
+ 0+
+0 0 10p+ 0
10p
10n
10p+0 +
sodium (Na-23). have completely filled outer 4n
4n4n 0 0 10n
10n
10n
0
0 0
4n4n 0 10n
10n 0
orbits, we can conclude
that there is something
MATH TIP
LiLi
Li Ne
Ne
Ne
Ratio
particularly stable about Li
LiLi Ne
Ne
Ne
A ratio is a comparison of quantities. full outer orbits (Figure 6).
The ratio of boys to girls in Ontario is As you will see in the
approximately 1:1. The ratio of hydrogen following sections, the
atoms to oxygen atoms in a water 11p
11p
11p + +
+
18p
18p
18p
+
+ +
stability of filled outer 11p
11p
12n
+ 0+
18p+ 0
18p
22n +
molecule is 2:1. Ratios are usually 11p
12n
12n
+
0 0 18p
22n
+
22n
0 0
expressed using the smallest possible
electron orbits is important 12n
12n
12n0 0
0
22n0 0
22n
22n0

whole numbers. to understanding how

elements combine to form
compound a pure substance composed compounds. Compounds NaNa
Na Ar
Ar
Ar
Na
NaNa Ar
ArAr
of two or more elements in a fixed ratio are substances made up
of two or more elements
in a fixed ratio.
Figure 6 Lithium (Li-7),
19p
19p
19p
+ +
+
sodium (Na-23), and potassium
19p+ 0+
19p
20n
19p+0 0 (K-39) are reactive because
20n
20n
20n 0 0
20n
20n 0 of their single outer electron.
Helium (He-4), neon (Ne-20),
and argon (Ar-40) are stable
because they have filled outer
KK
K electron orbits.
K
KK
186 Chapter 5 • Chemicals and Their Properties NEL
 While the noble gases are very stable, the elements at the other side of
the periodic table—the alkali metals—are very reactive. Observations show
that every alkali metal reacts with water (Figure 2). Chemists theorize that To see the reactions of some of
alkali metals are highly reactive because each of their atoms contains one the alkali metals with water,
electron in its outer orbit. GO TO NELSON SCIENCE

IN SUMMARY
• Elements are arranged in the periodic table in • The number of electrons in the outer orbit affects
order of atomic number (the number of protons the reactivity of an element.
in the nucleus). • Bohr−Rutherford diagrams illustrate the numbers
• Electrically neutral elements have the same of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom
number of electrons as protons in each atom. and the arrangement of the electrons.
• Elements in vertical columns (groups) in the
periodic table all have the same number of
electrons in their outer orbits.

CHECK YOUR LEARNING

1. What information on the periodic table lets you predict the 6. Look at the physical appearance of the elements in
number of electrons in an atom? K/U Figure 7. K/U
2. Compare metals and non-metals in terms of their (a) Classify each element as either a metal or a non-metal.
(a) state at room temperature (b) Identify one unusual physical property of element (iv).
(b) electrical conductivity (c) Which of the elements are likely to conduct electricity?
(c) lustre
(d) number of electrons in their outermost orbit K/U
3. Refer to the periodic table to name and write the symbols for
the following elements: K/U
(i) (iii)
(a) the halogen of the second period
(b) the alkaline earth metal in the fifth period
(c) the noble gas with the smallest atomic number
(d) the non-metal in the fifth period with seven outermost
electrons
(e) the alkali metal of the fourth period
(f) the metal of the third period with three outermost electrons (ii) (iv)
(g) the unreactive gas of the second period Figure 7 Elements at room temperature
4. Sketch the Bohr−Rutherford diagrams for the following
elements: nitrogen (N-14), aluminum (Al-27), chlorine (Cl-35), 7. Compare the number of outermost electrons
and magnesium (Mg-24). T/I C
(a) within a period
5. Imagine that chemists discovered a new element with atomic
(b) within a group K/U
number 119. T/I
8. Why are atoms electrically neutral? K/U

(a) Use the periodic table to predict what chemical family this
element would belong to. 9. Many high schools have banned the use of potassium.
What property of potassium may have led to this ban? T/I
(b) How many outer electrons would an atom of this element
have?
(c) Predict one physical property and one chemical property of
this element.

NEL 5.4 Patterns and the Periodic Table 187