CLASS : X SUB: CHEMISTRY

4:CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon
 Carbon is an element which plays a very important role in our lives
 Carbon is a versatile element.
 In earth’s crust, carbon is 0.02% and found in form of minerals.
 Atmosphere has 0.03% of Carbon dioxide.
 All living structures are carbon based.
The properties of carbon which are responsible for such large number of compounds are-
1. Carbon forms covalent bonds
2. Carbon shows Tetravalency
3. Catenation- Property to bind with other carbon atoms Covalent Bonds.
Covalent Bond in Carbon
The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2, 4. To attain a noble
gas configuration it can
 Gain 4 electrons. But it would be difficult for nucleus to hold 4 extra electrons.
 Lose 4 electrons. But it would require a large amount of energy to remove
4 electrons.
 It is difficult thus for an atom of carbon to either gain or lose electrons.
 Carbon attains the noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons with other
atoms. Atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine also show
sharing of valence electrons.
 Formation of H2, O2 and N2 is shown as below :

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 Formation of H2.

Formation of N2.

Covalent bond: Bond formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms is
called covalent bond.
 Covalently bonded molecules have low melting and boiling points because of
comparatively weaker intermolecular forces, unlike ionic compounds.
 These molecules are generally poor conductor of electricity since no charged particles are
formed.

Types of Covalent Bonds

1. Single Bond
• Bond formed by sharing of one pair of electrons is called a single bond.
• It is represented by a small horizontal line (__).
 E.g. a) Formation of Hydrogen Molecule takes place by formation of a single covalent
bond.
 Hydrogen atom has only one electron in its outermost shell, and requires one more
electron to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration of helium.
 To do so, two hydrogen atoms share one pair of electrons between them.

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  This leads to the formation of a single covalent bond between the two hydrogen atoms.

b) Formation of Chlorine Molecule takes place by formation of a single bond.

 Chlorine atom has seven valence electrons.
 Thus, each Chlorine atom requires one more electron to acquire the nearest noble gas
configuration (Ar:2, 8, 8).

2. Double Bond
• Double bonds are formed by sharing of two pairs of electrons.
• It is represented by two horizontal lines (=).
• E.g: Formation of Oxygen Molecule takes place by formation of a double bond.
 An oxygen atom has six electrons in its valence shell.
 As a result, it requires 2 more electrons to achieve the nearest noble gas (Neon)
configuration.

3. Triple Bond
• Triple bonds are formed by sharing of three pairs of electrons.
• It is represented by three horizontal lines ( )
• E.g: Formation of Nitrogen Molecule takes place by formation of a triple bond.

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  Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its valence shell.
 It requires three more electrons to acquire a stable configuration of the nearest noble gas
(neon).
 This is done by mutually sharing three pairs of electrons.

Examples of covalent compounds

1. Methane Molecule.
 Carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell.
 Thus, it requires four more electrons to acquire a stable noble gas configuration.
 Each of the hydrogen atoms has only one electron in its outermost shell and requires one
more electron to complete its outermost shell (to acquire He configuration).

2. Carbon Dioxide Molecule

• The electronic configurations of carbon and oxygen are:

 Thus, each carbon atom requires four, and each oxygen atom requires two more electrons
to acquire noble gas configurations.
 To achieve this, two oxygen atoms form a double covalent bond with carbon as follows.

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3. Acetylene Molecule

 Carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell and hydrogen atoms have only one
electron in its outermost shell.
 Carbon share one of its electrons with hydrogen to form a single bond each.
 Each carbon then requires three more electrons to acquire a stable configuration of the
nearest noble gas (neon).
 This is done by mutually sharing three pairs of electrons between the two carbon atoms to form a
triple bond as shown below.

Allotropes of Carbon.
 The existence of one element in different forms, having different physical properties, but similar
chemical properties is known as allotropy.
 Carbon shows allotropy.
The various allotropic forms of carbon can be broadly classified into two classes.
 Crystalline form: Diamond, Graphite, Buckminster Fullerene
 Amorphous form: Coal, Coke, Charcoal (or wood charcoal), Animal Charcoal.
o Diamonds and graphite are two crystalline allotropes of carbon.
o Diamond and graphite both are covalent crystals. But, they differ considerably in
their properties.

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In diamond, each C atom is linked to its neighbouring carbon atoms by four single covalent
bonds.
 This leads to a three-dimensional network of covalent bonds.
In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in flat parallel layers as regular hexagons.
 Each carbon in these layers is bonded to three other carbon atoms by covalent bonds.
 Graphite has one electron free or unshared (this is responsible of its property to conduct
electricity).
 This allows each layer to slide over the other easily.
 Due to this type of structure graphite is soft and slippery, and is used as a lubricant.
 Graphite is also a good conductor of electricity due to a free mobile electron in it.
Buckminster Fullerene (C 60), contains 60 carbon atoms.
 It has 20 six membered rings (hexagons) and 12 five membered rings( pentagons)
 The structure resembles the Geodesic Domes designed by US architect Buckminster
Fuller, so this allotrope of carbon is named as Buckminster Fullerene.
 It is a dark solid at room temperature.
 It is a very small molecule (only 60 carbon atoms) as compared to Diamond and
Graphite.
 It is neither very hard like Diamond nor very soft like Graphite.

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 Versatile Nature of Carbon.
 The unique nature of carbon atom and the arrangement of the bond carbon forms with other atoms
enable the existence of such a large number of organic compounds.
 Tetravalent Nature -Due to its tetravalent nature carbon always form covalent bonds by sharing
electrons with one, two, three or four carbon atoms or atoms of other elements or groups of atoms.
 Catenation : The tetra covalency of carbon atom allows it to combine easily with other carbon
atoms. This property of carbon to combine with other carbon atoms to form a stable chain like
structure is called Catenation.
 The smaller size of carbon atom enables nucleus to hold the shared pair of electrons
strongly, thus carbon compounds are very stable in general.

Chain, Branched and Ring strictures of carbon compounds

 The properties of tetravalency and catenation allow the formation stable chains of carbon atoms
having different chain lengths and structures.
 The chains of carbon atoms may be linear or branched (open) or cyclic (closed) rings, sheets and
three-dimensional lattices. For example,

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Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Hydrocarbons are classified into saturated and un saturated hydrocarbons:

Saturated Carbon Compounds

 Compounds of carbon and hydrogen whose adjacent carbon atoms contain only one
(carbon-carbon) bond are known as saturated hydrocarbons.
 Eg: Alkanes
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
 Compounds of carbon and hydrogen that contain one double covalent bond between
carbon atoms (carbon=carbon) or a triple covalent bond between carbon atoms are called
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons can be divided into 'alkenes' and 'alkynes' depending on the
presence of double or triple bonds respectively.

Homologous Series:
 It is a series of organic compounds that can be represented by a general formula having
similar chemical properties are called homologus series.

 The adjacent members of the series differ by a –CH2- unit or by a molecular mass of 14 u.
 They show gradation in their physical properties because of the difference of the chain
length.

 They show similar chemical properties because of the presence of same functional group.

 Melting point and boiling point increases with increasing molecular mass.

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ALKANE : CnH2n+2

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ALKENE : CnH2n

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Alkynes (CnH2n-2)

Heteroatom and Functional Group:

 In hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen atoms can be replaced by other
atoms in accordance with their valences. The element that replaces hydrogen is
called a heteroatom.
 These heteroatoms or group of atoms attached to the carbon chain, which gives
specific properties to the compounds , is called functional groups.
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds:
 Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound.
 Functional group is indicated either by prefix or suffix.
Functional Group Suffix
Alkene Ene
Alkyne Yne
Alcohol Ol
Aldehyde Al
Ketone One
Carboxylic acid oic acid
Chlorine Chloro

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Isomerism
The compounds having same molecular formula but different structures are called isomers. This
phenomenon is called isomerism. Isomerism is possible with hydrocarbons having 4 or more
carbon atom.
Isomers of Butane

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Isomers of pentane

Some cyclic compounds

Cyclopentane Cyclopropane Cyclobutane Benzene

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

1. Combustion
• Combustion means the burning of a substance.
• It is a process that is highly exothermic i.e., produces a lot of heat.
• The products of combustion of carbon and its compounds are carbon dioxide, water (vapour)
and a large amount of heat energy is released.
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 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light.
 Saturated hydrocarbon burns generally with a blue flame in good supply or air and with a
yellow sooty flame in limited supply of air.
 Sooty flame is seen when unsaturated hydrocarbons are burnt.
 Burning of coal and petroleum emits oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are responsible
for acid rain.

2. Oxidation
Alcohols can be converted to carboxylic acids by oxidizing them using alkaline
potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate (they add oxygen to the
reactant, thus are called oxidizing agents).

Alkaline KMnO + heat

CH -CH2 OH CH3COOH
Acidified K2Cr2O7 + heat

3. Addition Reaction
Hydrogen is added to unsaturated hydrocarbon in presence of palladium or nickel as catalyst.
Vegetable oils are converted into vegetable ghee using this process.

Saturated fatty acids are harmful for health and oils with unsaturated fatty acids should be used
for cooking.

 Test to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated compounds:

The reddish brown of colour of the bromine water gets decolourised on reaction with
unsaturated compounds.
CH2=CH2 + Br2 BrCH2 CH2Br
Saturated compound do not change the colour of bromine water.
C2H6 + Br2 No reaction.
4. Substitution Reaction

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 In saturated hydrocarbons, the hydrogen attached to carbon can be replaced by another
atom or group of atoms in presence of sunlight.

CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl (sunlight required)

Important Carbon Compounds

Ethanol or Ethyl Alcohol

Usually the term 'alcohol' refers to ethanol. Man has been using ethanol for thousands of years
especially in the form of wine.
The structural formula of ethanol is given as follows:

 Ethanol is colorless liquid and has a pleasant odour.

 Its boiling point is 78o C and its freezing point is -114oC.
 It is soluble in water and almost all the organic solvents.
 It is highly intoxicating in nature.
 It is combustible and burns with a blue flame.
Properties of Ethanol
1. Action with Sodium Metal
 When a piece of sodium is dropped in ethyl alcohol, bubbles of hydrogen gas are observed.
 This property can be used as a test for Ethanol ( Hydrogen gas released burns with a pop sound).

2. Dehydration
Heating ethanol at 443K with excess concentrated slphuric acid and results in the dehydration of
ethanol to give ethane:

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 Ethanoic Acid
 Formula: CH3COOH, IUPAC Name: Ethanoic acid
 Acetic acid is a colourless, corrosive liquid with a pungent smell at ordinary
temperatures.
 The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290Kand hence it often freezes during winter
in cold climates. This give rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar.

Reactions of ethanoic acid

Esterification :
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in presence of few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid as
catalyst and form sweet smelling compounds called ester.

Saponification reaction.
Ester can be converted in to the corresponding sodium salt of carboxylic acid and alcohol by
treating it with an aqueous alkali( NaOH) or acid , the reaction is called saponification, because it
is used for the preparation of soap.

CH3COO CH2CH3 + NaOH →CH COONa + CH -CH OH

3 3 2

With Alkalis, Carbonates and Bicarbonates

• Acetic acid turns blue litmus to red, neutralizes alkalis to form salt and water. It also
decomposes carbonates and bicarbonates to liberate carbon dioxide indicated by effervescence.

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Soaps and Detergents
 Soap is sodium and potassium salt of carboxylic acids with long chain.
 Soaps are effective with soft water only and ineffective with hard water.
 Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of carboxylic acids with long chain. They
are effective with both soft as well as hard water.
An ionic part (hydrophilic) and a long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic) part constitutes the soap
molecule.

Structure of a Soap Molecule

Cleansing Action of Soaps :

Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water. The molecule of soap
constitutes sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. In the case of soaps, the
carbon chain dissolves in oil and the ionic end dissolves in water. Thus the soap molecules form
structures called micelles .In micelles, one end is towards the oil droplet and the other end which
is the ionic faces outside. Therefore, it forms an emulsion in water and helps in dissolving the
dirt when we wash our clothes.

Soap is a kind of molecule in which both the ends have different properties.

 Hydrophilic end

 Hydrophobic end

The first one is the hydrophilic end which dissolves water and is attracted towards it whereas the
second one is the hydrophobic end that is dissolved in hydrocarbons and is water repulsive in
nature. If on the surface of the water, soap is present then the hydrophobic tail which is not
soluble in water will align along the water surface.

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Detergents
Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acid or fatty acids.
Scum
The white insoluble precipitate formed when soap is dissolved in hard water is called scum.
Hard water and Soft water
Hard water normally does not produce lather with soap while soft water produces lather with
soap. Hard water contains calcium and magnesium salts in it. Hence these ions reacts with soap
molecules producing white insoluble precipitate called scum.
Ca2+ + 2 C17 H 35 COONa (C17 H 35 COO)2 + 2 Na+
Hence soap doesn’t work well in hard water. Therefore to avoid this difficulty, we can use
detergents.
Detergents
Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids or fatty acids.

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