Nature of

Inquiry and Research

INQUIRY
– is to look for information by asking various questions about the thing you are curious about.
THE INQUIRY PROCESS
QUESTION CONNECT ANALYZE AND
– use curiosity, wonder, – connect prior knowledge INTERPRET
need, or interest to ask and new knowledge. – make meaning. Explain
rich questions Reflect on learning. patterns in data.

PREDICT PLAN INVESTIGATE RECORD

– think about – identify – observe – document
what will methods and objects, observations
happen. Not materials. Seek places, events. and data from
the same as information. Sort, classify, investigation.
guessing. compare, Express ideas,
contrast, and thoughts, and
test. information.

RESEARCH
– is to discover truths by investigating your chosen topic scientifically; meaning, by going through
a systematic way of doing things wherein you are to begin from the simplest to the most
complex modes or patterns of thinking.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Carry out the Research
Define the Problem – Collect your data; record information
– Select a topic for the research.
Interpret your Results
Review the Literature – Work out the implications of the data
– Familiarize yourself with existing you collected
research on the topic.
Report the Research Findings
Select a Research Design – What is their significance? How do they
– Choose one or more research methods; relate to previous findings?
experiment, survey, observation, use
of existing sources. Repeat

Formulate a Hypothesis
– Your findings are registered and discussed
in the wider academic community, leading
– What do you intend to test? What is the perhaps to the initiation of further
relationship between the variables? research.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH Aims for Research
CRITICAL. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment 1. Verification of existing
knowledge
LOGICAL Research is based on valid procedures and principles 2. Acquisition of new
knowledge
EMPIRICAL. Research is based on direct experience or 3. Application of new
observation by the researcher knowledge
4. Advancement of the
ANALYTICAL. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures researcher’s expertise
in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, and
experimental and case study.
REPLICABILITY. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
METHODICAL. Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic
methods and procedures.
CYCLICAL. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a problem.

INQUIRY VS. RESEARCH

– Inquiry and research are both seeking information to have extensive knowledge. While inquiry
is an act of asking for information, research is a systematic investigation into and study of
materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
RESEARCH PROJECT INQUIRY PROJECT
Research reads like a list Content leads to personal reflection and
approach
Some analysis and synthesis Personal desire to know more
No personal connection Driving question created by you
Emphasis on the product Innovative/personal approach to
research

EXAMPLES
INQUIRY
1. A person wants to know the occupant of
one condominium
2. Mr. Enriquez wants to know the
technique to make his electric fan
function instantly
3. Aling Riza wants to know the reason
behind the decrease in her sales for the
day
RESEARCH
1. A student wants to know the medicinal
effects of guava
2. Professor Lee wants to discover the
impact of social networking on his
students’ learning abilities
3. A businessman wants to find out which
between these two marketing strategies:
free tasting and attractive packaging,
could increase daily sales.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
– Ethics is the study of right and wrong; responsibility; and, in the context of this subject,
appropriate behavior toward research participants.
ANIMAL RIGHTS AND WELFARE IN RESEARCH HUMAN RIGHTS IN RESEARCH
– The principles of animal use in research are 1. Right to voluntary participation
based on the Philippine Republic Act No. 8485, 2. Right to informed consent
otherwise known as the Animal Welfare Act 3. Right to be protected from harm
of 1998. The purpose of this act is to protect 4. Right to confidentiality
and promote the welfare of all animals in the 5. Right to anonymity
Philippines.
SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT: PLAGIARISM AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
– Plagiarism should not be tolerated as the unauthorized use of orig inal ideas and works
constitutes a violation of intellectual property rights, which is defined as the creations of
the mind: inventions; literary and artistic works; and symbols, names, and images used in
commerce.
Acts of Plagiarism When to cite?
• Claiming authorship of work or creation • Using words or ideas presented in
done by another person various mediums
• Copying an entire written work or a portion • Information you gain through
of it—including words, sentences, and interviewing or conversing with another
id eas—without acknowledging the author person, face to face, over the phone,
• Failing to put quotation marks to or in writing
distinguish a quotation taken directly from • When you copy the exact words or a
a source unique phrase
• Giving incorrect information about the • When you reprint any diagrams,
source of a quotation illustrations, charts, pictures, or other
• Merely changing the words but retaining visual materials
the sentence structure so that • When you reuse or repost any dig ital
the selection or quotes still bears a media, including images, audio, video, or
resemblance to the orig inal source other media
• Using so many words and ideas from • Any words, ideas, or other productions
the orig inal source that it makes up a that orig inate somewhere outside of
large portion of your work, even if you you
acknowledged the orig inal author.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
BASED ON APPLICATION OF RESEARCH METHOD
Basic Research / Pure Research Applied Research
• desire to expand knowledge • new knowledge acquired has specific
• curiosity-driven commercial objectives: products,
• intended to answer why, what, or how procedures, or services
questions • answer specific questions aimed at
• increase an understanding of fundamental solving practical problems
principles
• does not have immediate commercial
objectives
• may not necessarily result in an invention
or a solution to a practical problem
 BASED ON THE PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH / METHODOLOGY
Descriptive Research
– aims at defining or giving a verbal portrayal or picture of a person, thing, event, group,
situation, etc.
Correlational Research
– shows relationships or connectedness of two factors, circumstances, or agents called
variables that affect the research
Explanatory Research / Casual Research
– elaborates or explains not just the reasons behind the relationship of two factors, but
also the ways by which such a relationship exists.
Exploratory Research
– its purpose is to find out how reasonable or possible it is to conduct a research study on a
certain topic
Action Research
– studies an ongoing practice of a school, organization, community, or institution for the
purpose of obtaining results that will bring improvements in the system

BASED ON THE TYPES OF DATA NEEDED

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
• structured data • summary
• statistical analysis • subjective conclusions
• objective conclusions • interviews, focus groups,
• surveys, experiments observation

TYPES OF DATa NATURE OF DATa

Primary Data Qualitative Data
– the type of data that is collected • deals with descriptives
by researchers directly from main • data can be observed but not measured
sources • colors, textures, smells, tastes,
• observation appearances, beauty, etc.
• experimentation Quantitative Data
• survey
Secondary Data
• deals with numbers
• data which can be measured
– is the data that has already been • length, height, area, volume, weight, speed,
collected through primary sources time, temperature, humid ity, sound levels,
and made readily available for cost, members, ages, etc.
researchers to use for their own
research.
• print or electronic
 Qualitative Research
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
– is a research type that puts premium or high value on people’s thinking or point of view
conditioned by their personal traits. As such, it usually takes place in soft sciences like social
sciences, politics, economics, humanities, education, psychology, nursing, and all business-related
subjects.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

HUMAN UN DERSTANDING AND INTERPRETATION
• Data analysis results show an individual’s mental, social, and spiritual understanding of the
world.
ACTIVE, POWE RFUL, AND FORCEFUL
• A lot of changes occur continuously in every stage of qualitative research.
MULTIPLE RESEARCH APPROACHES AND METHODS
• Qualitative research allows you to approach or plan your study in varied ways.
SPECIFICITY TO GENERALIZATION
• Specific ideas in qualitative research are directed to a general understanding of
something.
CONTEXTUALIZATION
• Qualitative research involves all variables, factors, or conditions affecting the study.
DIVERSI FI ED DATA IN REAL-LIFE SITUATIONS
• A qualitative researcher prefers collecting data in a natural setting.
ABOUND WITH WORDS AND VISUALS
• Data gathering is done through interviews or library reading, as well as the presentation
of data analysis results, which is done verbally.
INTERNAL ANALYSIS
• You examine the data yielded by the internal traits of the subject individuals (i.e.,
emotional, mental, spiritual characteristics).

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

CASE STUDY
– usually takes place in the field of social care, nursing, psychology, rehabilitation centers,
education, etc.
EXAMPLES:
• PTSD as a result of a kidnapping
• Multiple personality disorder
 ETHNOGRAPHY
– falling in the field of anthropology, ethnography is the study of a particular cultural group
to get a clear understanding of its organizational set-up, internal operation, and lifestyle.
EXAMPLE:
• How issues in masculinity are being observed by men
PHENOMENOLOGY
– coming from the word “phenomenon,” which means something known through sensory
experience, phenomenology refers to the study of how people find their experiences
meaningful.
EXAMPLE:
• Relatives of Typhoon Victims
CONTENT AN D DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
– is a method of qualitative research that requires analysis or examination of the substance
or content of the mode of communication (letters, books, journals, photos, video
recordings, SMS, online messages, emails, audio-visual materials, etc.) used by a person,
group, organization, or any institution in communicating.
EXAMPLE:
• Martin Luther king’s speech and how that speech was used to inspire people as well as
create leaders in black Americans
HISTORICAL ANALYSIS
– central to this qualitative research method is the examination of primary documents to
make you understand the connection of past events to the present time.
EXAMPLE:
• Vietnam war: How can we avoid having another war like it
GROUNDED THEORY
– takes place when you discover a new theory to underlie your study at the time of data
collection and analysis.
EXAMPLE:
• Living life during a pandemic

PROS & CONS

ADVANTAGES
• Comparatively easier to drive or
conduct
• Allows to explore topics and to
generate hypotheses
• Generates an opportunity to collect
data from the group interaction, which
concentrates on the topic of the
researcher’s interest
• Has high “face valid ity” (data)
• Has low cost in relation to other
methods
• Gives speed in the supply of the results
(in terms of evidence of the meeting of
the group)
• Allows the researcher to increase the
size of the sample of the qualitative
studies
DISADVANTAGES
• Not based on a natural atmosphere
• You have less control over the data that
are generated
• Not possible to know if the interaction in
the group he/she contemplates or not the
individual behavior
• Data analyses are more difficult to be
done. The interaction of the group forms
a social atmosphere and the comments
should be interpreted inside of this context
• Demands interviewers carefully trained
• Takes effort to assemble the groups
• The discussion should be conducted in an
atmosphere that facilitates the dialogue
Quantitative Research
QUANTIITATIVE RESEARCH
– makes you focus your mind on specific things by means of statistics that involve the collection
and study of numerical data
– focuses on the quantity

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments
• The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population
• The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability
• The researcher has clearly defined research questions to which objective answers are sought
• All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected
• Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or
other non-textual forms
• The project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or
investigate causal relationships
• The researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical
data

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

– the importance of quantitative research lies greatly in the production of results that should
reflect precise measurement and an in-depth analysis of data.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
– is a quantitative research that treats or deals with the object or subject of the research
in a definite or exact manner and determines the extent of the effects or influence of the
treatment on the object/subject, then discovers the causes of such effects
• Typically includes forensic studies, biological and other laboratory studies, etc.
• Emphasize on reliability, valid ity, replicability, and generalizability
• Deductive approach = hypothesis
• Goal: Identify cause and effect relationships; predictions and outcomes
• Objective
• Rely on statistics
• In vitro Observation
• Field Research
Weaknesses Strengths
• Artificial • Objective
• Lack of ecological valid ity • Easily generalized with cause and effect
• Can be proved by others as well
 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Random Assignment
2. Manipulate independent variable
3. Controlled by the researcher
4. Use random selection in determining
among participants (experimental group
vs. control group)
WHEN DO WE USE NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS?
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
1. No randomization
2. Manipulate independent variable
3. Not controlled by the researcher
4. Adopts comparative technique in
choosing subjects

TREATMENT?

YES NO

CONTROL GROUP?

YES NO

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT?

YES NO

TRUE EXPERIMENT QUASI-EXPERIMENT NON-EXPERIMENT

NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
– is a type of quantitative research where characteristics of the study group or a certain
occurrence are described
• Typically includes sociological and psychological studies
• Qualitative data collection (e.g. survey); emphasizing on how people explain their natural
experience
• Inductive approach = research question
• Goal: Describe the meanings attributed to events by the research participants
themselves
• Rely on interpretations
• Uses interviews
• Naturalistic observation (both participant and non-participant, covert and overt)
– is also used when
• Subjects cannot be randomly assigned to conditions
• The research subject is about a causal relationship, but the independent variable
cannot be manipulated
• The research is broad and exploratory
• The research pertains to a non-causal relationship between variables
• Limited information can be accessed about the research subject
 Weaknesses Strengths
• Subjective • Social Desirability • Can reveal rich data
• Interviewer Effect Bias • Can invoke insightful interpretations
• Participant Bias • Self-reporting Bias
SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN
– a method of research that aims at knowing what a big number of people think and feel
about some sociological issues
Ethical Principles and Rules in Survey Research
1. Respect whatever decision a person has about your research work because their
participation in your study comes solely from their own decision-making powers
2. Make sure that your study will be instrumental in elevating the living conditions of
people around you or in bringing about world progress
3. Conduct your research work in a way that the respondents will be safe from any injury
or damage that may arise from their physical and emotional involvement in the study
4. Practice honesty and truthfuln ess in reporting about the results of your study
5. Accept the reality that the nature, kind, and extent of responses to your questions
depend solely on the dispositions of the respondents
6. Decide properly which information should go public or secret
7. Stick to your promise of safeguarding the secrecy of some information you obtained
from the respondents
Types of Survey Designs

LONGITUDINAL (STUDY OVER TIME)

Trend Cohort Panel
• Trends in the same • Changes in a sub-population • Changes in the same
population over time group identified by a common people over time
characteristic over time
CROSS-SECTIONAL (STUDY AT ONE POINT IN TIME)
Group Comparisons National Assessment
• Attidudes and Practices • Community Needs and Program Evaluation
Weaknesses Strengths
• It cannot provide sufficient evidence about • Versatility
the relationships of variables – it can tackle any issue affecting
• It cannot examine the significance of some society
issues affecting people’s social life • Efficiency
• It cannot get data reflecting the effects of – it is not costly in terms of money
the interconnectedness of environmental and time, assuming there is excellent
features on the research study communication or postal system
• It cannot use a questioning or coding • Generality
method that can accurately register – it can get a good representation or
differences among participants’ responses sample of a large group of people
• It cannot diffuse the main researcher’s • Confidentiality
abilities to control and manipulate some – it is capable of safeguarding
factors affecting the study the privacy or anonymity of the
• It cannot account for real or actual respondents
happenings but can give ideas on
respondents’ views, beliefs, concepts, and
emotions
 Subject Matter of the inquiry or research

CHOOSING THE SUBJECT MATTER

GUIDELINES IN CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC
A TOPIC SHOULD BE: 1. Interest in the subject matter
• Researchable 2. Availability of the information
• Observable 3. Timeliness and Relevance of the Topic
• Factual 4. Limitations on the Subject
• Logical 5. Personal Resources

starting the research topic

1. Do some preliminary research to identify a problem
2. Refine your research questions
3. Layout the foundations of your research design
4. Create a proposal that outlines your ideas and plans
STEP 1: CHOOSE YOUR TOPIC STEP 2: IDENTIFY A PROBLEM
HOW TO SELECT A RESEARCH TOPIC RESEARCH PROBLEM
• Research before choosing a topic • Focus
• Should not be broad • Purpose
• Know all the requirements • Practical issues
• Relevant to your field of study
• Align with current trends and hot topics PROBLEM STATEMENT
• Aim to solve a genuine contextual problem • Who the problem affects
• Should be a researchable topic • Why research is needed
• Keep page or word limit in mind • How your project will
• Should spark your interest contribute to solving it
• Should be relevant to the supervisor’s
field of study
• Should not cause issues in data collection
• Check availability of data collection tools

STEP 3: FORMULATE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Example Topic: Remote Learning
Problem: How do K-12 Schools Track Student Attendance During Remote Learning?
Research questions:
1. What is the average attendance of students per day?
2. What attendance management systems (AMS) are frequently used by:
• Public Schools
• Private Schools
3. Is there a significant difference among students’ attendance when monitored by different AMS?
 STEP 4: CREATE A RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It
involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the method you’ll use to collect and
analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research.
You need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or
quantitative methods. You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures, and materials
you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria for selecting participants or
sources.
STEP 5: WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research. As
well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the proposal
should also include a literature review that shows how your project will fit into existing work on
the topic. The research design section describes your approach and explains exactly what you
will do.

RESEARCH TOPICS TO AVOID

• Controversial topics
• Highly technical subjects
• Hard-to-investigate subjects
• Too broad subjects
• Too narrow subjects

SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS

• Mass media communication—press (newspapers, ads, TV, radio, films, etc.)
• Books, internet, peer-reviewed journals, government publications
• Professional periodicals (e.g. College English Language Teaching Forum, English Forum, The
Economist, Academia, Business Circle, Law Review, etc.)
• General periodicals (Readers’ Digest, Women’s Magazine, Panorama Magazine, Time Magazine,
World Mission Magazine, etc.)
• Previous reading assignments in your other subjects

Research Problem &

Research Questions
Research problem
– is the educational issue or problem within a broad topic area
EXAMPLES:
• Satisfaction level • Conduciveness to learning
• Academic performance • Lack of sleep affecting the academic
• Technical difficulties performance of the learners
Research question
– are the specific questions derived from the problem you have identified
EXAMPLES:
• How will the cafeteria improve its customer service?
• Is there a difference in the learning among learners in modular class and online class?
• What solutions can the school provide to address the technical difficulties of the learners
and teachers?
• How will a family design a room to ensure that it is conducive to learning?
• What strategies can learners use to address sleep deprivation?

LITERATURE REVIEW EXAMPLE:

– is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal SLEEPING
articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or
research question. It is often written as part of a
thesis, dissertation, or research paper, in order to
situate your work in relation to existing knowledge. LACK OF SLEEP DUE
TO ACADEMICS
RESEARCH TOPIC
CREATE STUDY STRATEGIES THAT
RESEARCH PROBLEM DO NOT COMPROMISE SLEEP

RESEARCH PURPOSE WHAT STRATEGIES ADDRESS

SLEEP DEPRIVATION
RESEARCH QUESTION
8 HOURS OF SLEEP
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS INCREASE LEARNING

GUIDELINES IN WRITING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. RQs are connected to the research problem
2. RQs are based on the RRL
3. RQs are based on the researcher’s curiosity
4. RQs are aligned to theories, principles, and concepts
5. RQs are preceded by one main question
6. RQs are mostly not answerable by yes and no
7. RQs are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Timely)

example research questions

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
• How much sleep do learners get on a • What do learners do during ILTs?
school day? • How do teachers design activities for
• Are 8 hours of sleep helpful in learning?
improving learning and behavior? • What is the attitude of learners
• Why is time management related to toward sleep?
quality sleep and sanity?
 REVIEW OF

Related Literature
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
– a review aligning what we know with existing scholarly work
– a detailed review of existing literature related to the topic of a thesis or dissertation
– the use of ideas in the literature to justify the particular approach to the topic, the selection
of methods, and demonstration that this research contributes something new

PURPOSES OF RRL
• To obtain background knowledge of your research
• To relate your study to the current condition or situation of the world
• To show the capacity of your research work to introduce new knowledge
• To expand, prove, or disprove the findings of previous research studies
• To increase your understanding of the underly ing theories, principles, or concepts of your
research
• To explain technical terms involved in your research study
• To highlight the significance of your work with the kind of evidence it gathered to support the
conclusion of your research
• To avoid repeating previous research studies
• To recommend the necessity of further research on a certain topic

RRL STYLES OR APPROACHES

TRADITIONAL REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
– a quick overview of current studies
– helps explain why your study is important
– summarizes present forms of knowledge
– gives a new understanding of an existing work
– prone to subjectivity
– does not require methods but requires you to state your intentions in conducting the review

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

– a thorough search is conducted and explicit methods are used to select and analyze studies
– methodical, involves sequential acts of review, does not let you state your intentions
– requires you to go through the following:
1. Have a clear understanding of the research questions.
2. Plan your manner of obtaining the data.
3. Do the literature search.
4. Using a certain standard, determine which data, studies, or sources of knowledge are
valuable or not to warrant the reasonableness of your decision to take some data and junk
the rest.
5. Determine the methodological soundness of the research studies.
6. Summarize what you have gathered from various sources of data.
Guidelines for writing AN RRL
• Conduct a thorough literature survey before you start
• Ensure to present the research problem clearly
• Compare and contrast the different views in the sources
• A literature review should include title, abstract, index, introduction, corpus, bibliography,
and appendices
• Mention the paper’s methodology, analysis, instruments, and pieces of equipment used in the
study
• Remember to cite properly
• Limit the bias
• Summarize the strengths and weaknesses of the study

Literature review outline

I. Introduction
A. Describe the overall topic that you have been investigating, why it is important to the
field, and why you are interested in the topic
B. Identify themes and trends in research questions, methodology, and findings. Give a “big
picture” of the literature
II. Theme A
A. Overview of characteristics of the theme (commonalities, differences, nuances)
B. Sub-theme–narrow but grouped findings related to the theme
1. Study 1 (Research question(s), Methods/Participants, and Related findings)
2. Study 2
3. Study 3
C. Sub-theme
1. Study 4
2. Study 5
3. Study 6
D. Other findings that fit theme A: studies can be repeated if there are multiple findings
that fit under more than one theme. However, no need to rewrite methods/participants in
detail (just enough to remind the reader about the study)
III. Theme B—follow A–D from above
IV. Additional Themes
V. Conclusion—An evaluation/critique of the existing literature. Write several paragraphs on:
A. What are the contributions of this literature to the field?
B. What are the overall strengths?
C. What are the overall weaknesses?
D. What might be missing?
E. What are some next steps for research? The next steps should explicitly address how to
connect for strengths, weaknesses, and gaps
 QUALITATIVE
Research Designs
qualitative research
– primarily an exploratory research method that is typically done early in the design process
and is useful for uncovering insights into people’s thoughts, opinions, and motivations
– qualitative refers to things that cannot be measured numerically and have no exception

DESIGN
– a plan or something conceptualized by the mind
– serves as a blueprint or a skeletal framework of your research study

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

CASE STUDY
– centers on an individual or single subject matter
– aims to determine why such creature (person, organization, thing, or event) acts, behaves,
occurs, or exists in a particular manner
• Interview
• Observation
• Questionnaire
EXAMPLES:
• Student Initiation to Science by Computer-Aided Teachers: A Case Study
• A Case Study of Reasing Comprehension Instruction of Students with Learning Difficulties
in Elementary School

ETHNOGRAPHY
– involves a study of a certain cultural group or organization in which you, the researcher,
have to obtain knowledge about the characteristics, organizational set-up, and relationships
of the group members must necessarily involve you in their group activities
EXAMPLES:
• The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity
• Ethnographic Research Among Drinking Youth Cultures: Reflections from Observing
Participants

HISTORICAL STUDY
– determines the reasons for changes or permanence of things in the physical world in a
certain period (i.e., years, decades, or centuries)
EXAMPLES:
• A Five-Year Study of the Impact of the K-12 Curriculum on the Philippine Employment System
• The Rise and Fall of the Twenty-Year Reign of Former Philippine President, Ferdinand E. Marcos
 • Filipino-Student Activism from the Spanish Era to the Contemporary Period
• Telephones from the Nuclear Era to the Dig ital Age

PHENOMENOLOGY
– lets you understand the ways of how people go through inevitable events in their lives
EXAMPLES:
• A Qualitative Phenomenological Exploration of Teachers’ Experience with Nutrition
Education
• A Phenomenological Study of the Experiences of Helping Professionals with Learning
Disabilities
• A Phenomenological Study into How Students Experience and Understand the University
Presid ency
ETHNOGRAPHY VS. PHENOMENOLOGY
• Ethnography aims at defining, describing, or portraying a certain group of people
possessing unique cultural traits
• Phenomenology aims at getting a thorough understanding of an individual’s life experiences
for this same person’s realistic dealings with hard facts of life

GROUNDED THEORY
– aims at developing a theory to increase your understanding of something in a psycho-social
context
– data collection is through a formal, informal, or semi-structured interview, as well as analysis
of written works, notes, phone calls, meeting proceedings, and training sessions
EXAMPLES:
• Being There: A Grounded-Theory Study of Student Perceptions of Instructor Presence in
Online Classes
• A Grounded-Theory Investigation of Patient Education in Physical Therapy Practice
• A Grounded-Theory Investigation into Sophomore Students’ Recall of Depression During
Their Freshman Year in College: A Pilot Study
QUANTITATIVE
Research Designs
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
– is a quantitative research design that basis its research method on a scientific activity called
an experiment in which a test or examination of a thing under a manipulated or controlled
environment is done to determine the valid ity or truthfuln ess of such thing
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• randomly selects participants
• bias-free selection that ensures the objectivity of results
• best way to examine causal relationships
 QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• research with a capacity to yield findings that are seemingly or more or less true
• prone to bias caused by your purposive
• rather than random selection of participants, it is incapable of establishing cause-effect
relationships since selection based on purpose is necessary
Matched Comparison Group Design
○ Instead of selecting participants for the control group, you get a set of participants
that shows close similarities with the experimental or treatment group based on one
or more important variables
Time-series Quasi-experimental Design
○ Its purpose is to see the connection between the pre-test and the post-test based on
the taking place of the treatment or condition
Counterbalanced Quasi-experimental Design
○ Control is applied to one group to examine the effects of all treatment and
conditions to control variables
○ For example, negative results coming from three-time observations are
counterbalanced or given weight that is equated with positive results from four or
five-time observations
Single-subject Quasi-experimental Design
○ Used when the population is so large that you find difficulty in choosing a group to
study
○ So you decide to apply the condition or treatment to a single subject like a class of
learners then later find out the effects of the treatment on the entire class
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN STAGES:
1. Clear knowledge of the research objectives
2. Formulation of the hypotheses
3. Method of testing your hypotheses
4. Choosing instrument to use in collecting data
5. Process of selecting the subjects
6. Performance of experimentation
7. Collection and analysis of data

NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

– the groups already exist and the experimenter cannot or does not attempt to manipulate
an independent variable, the experimenter is simply comparing the existing groups based on a
variable that the researcher did not manipulate
– the researcher simply compares what is already established
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
• a scientific method that involves observing and describing the behavior of a subject without
influencing it in any way.
COMPARATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
• a research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make comparisons across
different countries or cultures
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
• correlational research design measures a relationship between two variables without the
researcher controlling either of them.
SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN
• is a quantitative method to collect information from a pool of respondents by asking
multiple survey questions.
EX POST FACTO RESEARCH DESIGN
• translates itself into these English words, “that which is done afterward” and has the
purpose of deriving data from things that are by nature taking place, so as to obtain
explanations about past events