Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Different case studies

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 1

 Questions
• For each pair of products / processes below,
which one has the lowest environmental
impact?
– PET or aluminum packaging for soft drinks?
– Remanufacturing or recycling?
– Paper or plastic bags?
– Ethanol or gasoline for powering automobiles?
– Compact dish detergent or regular dish detergent?
– LED lights or CFL lights or incandescent lights?

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 2

 Answer: You Need Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA)
• LCA’s goal is to find the full range of environmental
(and societal) damages assignable to products (or a
process) through its entire life cycle
– Raw material extraction and processing, manufacturing,
distribution, use, and disposal / recycling
• Common categories of assessed damages (but not
limited to)
– Global warming, toxicity (air, water, and land), ozone layer
depletion, acid rain, depletion of minerals and fossil fuels
• Data intensive process, usually done through software
and existing databases

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 3

Structure / Scope of LCA

Cradle to Gate
Includes 4 stages
Cradle to Grave
Includes 6 stages
Source: P&G website
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 4
LCA Phases (ISO 14040 and 14044)
Goal and Scope
Definition
(Determining
boundaries for study)

Interpretation
Inventory Analysis (Major
(Data on inputs and contributions,
outputs quantities for sensitivity analysis:
all relevant processes) what can be learned
from study?)

Impact Assessment
(Contribution to impact
categories, such as
energy consumption,
through normalization
and weighing
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 5
 Step 1: Determining Goal
• Level of specificity in the study
– Is the product being analyzed specific to a company or a plant? Two
different plants producing the same type of product could have
different emission levels, for example
• This requires an additional level of data collection that may be impractical
– Or, will we focus on industrial averages (e.g., impacts of using
recycled aluminum in a design)?
• Level of accuracy in data collection / analysis
– Should be high if used in driving public policy
– If used in internal decision making for a firm, a reasonable estimate is
generally enough
• How to display the results. Example: comparing two products
– Comparison should be made in terms of equivalent use
– Example: bar soap vs. liquid soap; the basis should be an equal
number of hand washings

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 6

 Step 1: Determining Scope
Example
Product Assessment Matrix
Life Stage Environmental concern
Materials Solid Liquid Gaseous
Energy use
choice residues residues residues
Resource
extraction
Product
manufacture
Packaging and
transportation
Product use or
consumption
Maintenance,
recycling and
disposal
 Step 2: Inventory Analysis
• Collect data on the impact of inputs and outputs
generated by each row (life cycle stage) on the
assessed category of interest. Categories on
previous example:
– Materials choice
– Energy use
– Solid residues
– Liquid residues
– Gas residues
• Many databases exist for common materials and
processes used (industry averages)
• Mostly done through software
MOT
8
Sustainability
 Materials Choice
• Recommendations based on availability on
Earth, rate of depletion and toxicity
• Recommended:
– Al, Br, C, Fe, H, Mn, N, O, S, Si, and Ti
– Supplies are ample, potential for recycling is
good, and have no significant toxicity issues
• Limit or avoid:
– Ag, As, Au, Cd, Cl, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb
– Short supply and/or toxicity problems

9
 Energy Use (GJ / Mg) in Production of
Various Metals
Metal Primary Secondary
Production Production*
Steel 31 9
Copper 91 13
Aluminum 270 17
Zinc 61 24
Lead 39 9
Titanium 430 140
* Consumer recycled material
Source: P. Chapman and F. Roberts, 1983

10 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

 Solid Residues
• Process residues
– A result of manufacturing process
– Example: fly ash from coal combustion
• Product residues
– Intended to be part of the product
– Example: plastic molding
• Packaging residues
– 30% of all municipal solid waste…but
– 40% of all U.S. goods are purchased by corporations

11 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

 Liquid Residues of Common Industrial Processes and
Products
Process Liquid Species
Trace Nutrients Solvents, Organics Acids Suspended
Metals Oils Solids
Agriculture • • •
Chemical Mfg. + * * +
Electronics * +
Electroplating • * +
Fertilizer * +
Food production +
Leather making + *
Metal cleaning * * * *
Mining, smelting * •
Pesticides *
* = Modest influence on local, regional or global scale; + = minor influence on local,
regional, or global scale; • = major influence on local, regional, or global scale
Source: T. Graedel and B. Allenby, “Design for
Environment”.
 Impact Assessment
• Impact assessment looks at how inventory flows (cause)
contribute to impacts (effect)
• Impact assessment can include
– Classification
• inventory flows are placed in impact categories
– Characterization
• the contribution of each inventory flow is estimated for
each impact of interest
– Normalization
• the contribution of the product to each impact at the
global, national, regional, or local level is assessed
– Valuation/ Weighting
• subjective preferences are used to prioritize impact
categories and impacts
 Impact Assessment
• Classification
– Inventory materials are categorized as:
• Abundant or rare,
• Hazards,
• Regulated materials,
• Recyclable materials,
• Materials that contribute to global warming,
acidification….
 Classification by Material
Abundance
• Materials can be classified as those in
– infinite supply: Ar, Br, Ca, Cl, Kr, Mg, N, Na, Ne, O, Rn, Si, Xe
– ample supply: Al (Ga), C, Fe, H, K, S, Ti
– adequate supply: I, Li, P, Rb, Sr
– potentially limited supply: Co, Cr, Mo(Rh), Hi, Pb (As, Bi), Pt
(Ir, Os, Pb Rh, Ru), Zr (Hf)
– potentially highly limited supply: Ag, Au, Cu (Se, Te), He,
Hg, Sn, Zn, (Cd, Ge, In, Tl)
(lists by-product metals in parentheses after their
reservoir parent)

From Graedel, T., B. Allenby, Design for Environment, Prentice Hall (1996)
 Characterization
• Characterization is the quantification of the
contribution of each inventory flow to each impact of
interest
• Whereas inventory analysis can be seen as a model
which includes all types of complications (cut-off,
multifunctionality, etc.) characterization uses the
results of complicated models:
– Fate and transport
– Exposure assessment
– Dose-response
– Etc.
 Characterization
• Computational structure

hi   qij g j
where j

hi= the contribution of the product system to

impact i
qij= the equivalency (or characterization) factor
for intervention j for impact i
gj= components of the inventory vector for
intervention j
Example of LCA 1: Paper vs. Plastic Bag
Category Paper Bag Plastic Bag
Oil / gas (non-
Raw materials Wood (renewable)
renewable)
Energy to make 1.7 mJ 1.5 mJ
Solid waste 50 g 14 g
Total emissions to air 2.6 kg 1.1 kg
Global warming
equivalents (CO2 0.23 kg 0.53 kg
equivalents)
Source: Institute for Lifecycle Energy Analysis
Compares one paper bag with two plastic bags (similar carrying capacity)
Assumes current recycling rates

It depends!
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 18
 Example of LCA 2: Impact on Global
Warming of Different NEC Products
Electricity Cell Phones Distribution Distribution Fax Machines
cons. (use) 0.5% 0.4%
4% Disposal
Disposal
Assembly 0.5% Purchased
0.1%
at NEC parts
7% 23% Assembly
Purchased at NEC
Electricity 1%
parts cons. (use)
88% 76%

Desktop PCs Distribution Switching Equipment

1.0% Purchased
Disposal Assembly
parts
0.2% at NEC
2%
1%
Electricity
cons. (use) Purchased
39% parts Electricity
59% cons.
Assembly at (use)
NEC 98%
1%
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 19
Source: www.nec.co.jp
Example of LCA 3: Lamps (Energy Consumption)
Lamps in Comparison
(Use During 25,000 Hours)
3500

Energy [kW]
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
25 x GLS 2.5 x GFL 1 x LED
Use [kWh] 3290 658 658
Production [kWh] 15.3 10.2 9.9

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Source: www.osram-os.com 20

Example of LCA 3: Lamps (Toxicity Potential)

•Toxicity here is mainly caused by power

consumption due to by-products: arsenic, sodium
dichromate, hydrogen fluoride
•Measured in 1,4 dichlorobenzene equivalent

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 21

 Example of LCA 4: Corrosion
Protection Systems (After Scaling)

Source: Technical University of Berlin

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 22

Example of LCA 5: Materials for
Residential Construction

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Source: Kozak and Galston (2001) 23

 Application of LCA
Which option is better for the environment:
remanufacturing or recycling?
Answer: It depends!
(But remanufacturing is typically better)

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 24

 Example A. Two Automotive Parts (Low Level of
Technological Obsolescence)
Energy consumption (KWh/ton) for aluminum part Energy consumption (KWh/ton) for steel part:
(transmission): alternatives for end-of-life (gear) alternatives for end-of-life

30000 7000
29450
25000 6000
6205
5000
20000
4000
15000
3000 3150
10000
2000

5000
4405 1000
2597 742
0 0
Disposal Recycling Remanuf. Disposal Recycling Remanuf.

•In “disposal” a new part has to be produced from virgin raw materials
•In recycling, a new part is produced from recycled materials
•In remanufacturing, the part is remanufactured and reused
Remanufacturing is clearly better!
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 25
Source: Bert Bras (2009)
Example B. Cell Phones: Impact on Global
Warming (Primarily Energy Consumption)
Electricity Cell Phones Distribution
cons. (use) 0.5%
4% Disposal
Assembly at 0.5%
NEC
7%

Purchased
parts
88%

Most carbon footprint (and also energy use) occurs in

purchased pars (manufacturing and raw material extraction.)
Remanufacturing is best!
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 26
Example C. Desktop PCs: Impact on Global
Warming (Primarily Energy Consumption)
Distribution
Desktop PCs 1.0%
Disposal
0.2%
Electricity
cons. (use)
Purchased
39%
parts
59%
Assembly at
NEC
1%

Most carbon footprint (and also energy use) occurs in

purchased pars (manufacturing and raw material extraction.)
Remanufacturing is best!
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 27
Example D. Internet Switching Equipment: Impact on
Global Warming (Primarily Energy Consumption)
Switching Equipment
Purchased
Assembly
parts
at NEC
2%
1%

Electricity
cons. (use)
98%

Most carbon footprint (and also energy use) occurs during the use.
Recycling is best, if newer equipment is more energy efficient!

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 28

Example E. Refrigerators: Impact on Cumulative
Energy Consumption
Distribution
Manufacturing

Use

Again, most energy consumption occurs in usage. Best to replace

old appliances with energy efficient new appliances.
Recycling is best!
Source: Quariguasi Frota Neto et al. 2008
Sustainable Operations 29
 Limitations of LCA: Examples
• Weights given to different impacts
– What is more important? Use of water resources or CO2
emissions?
• Drawing the boundaries
– Cradle to Gate or Cradle to Grave?
– Do we consider supporting activities for the system?
• Example: a warehouse stores the product. Direct energy consumption
for the warehouse should be part of the system, but emissions
associated with garbage pickup for the facility probability shouldn’t be.
• Social and economic impacts
– Environmental impacts are relatively easy to measure, but socio-
economic impacts are difficult to quantify
• Renewable vs. non-renewable resources
• Remanufacturing, recycling, and reuse
– Consideration of recycling makes significant impact, even though
that depends on recycling rates

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 30

 Further Resources
• The web has an incredible amount of
information on LCA
• For starters, please check the document
“LCA_guide_EPA.pdf” on Angel, which has a
more detailed guide to LCA (by the EPA), and it
includes a list of software vendors
• See http://www.life-cycle.org/

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 31

 Defining the Product Life Cycle

Other
life cycles

recovery
Product use,
Material Material Product maintenance,
extraction processing manufacturing upgrade
disposal

Assessment Questions:
Why? What? Who? Where? How? When?
With what environmental implications?
At what cost?
What opportunities exist for partnerships,
elimination of toxics, material recovery, …..?
 A coffee maker’s life cycle

From Pré Consultants, "The Eco-indicator99: A damage oriented method for Life Cycle Impact Assessment, Manual for Designers,"
http://www.pre.nl/eco-indicator99/index.html
 Life Cycle Assessment
LCA is a technique for assessing the environmental aspects and potential
impacts associated with a product by:
– compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs of a product system
– evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs
– interpreting the results of the inventory and impact analyses in relation to the objective of the
study.

Goal and
Scope Direct Applications
Definition •Product development
and improvement
Inventory Interpretation
•Strategic planning
Assessment
•Public policy making
Impact •Marketing
Assessment

From ISO14040-1997, Environmental management-- Life cycle assessment-- Principles and framework
 Goal and Scope of the study

• The goal of a LCA describes

– the intended application (what is being assessed?),
– the reasons for carrying out the study,
– the intended audience (to whom the results of the study
are intended to be communicated)
• The scope of the LCA considers
– System function
– Included materials and processes
– Type of impact assessment

From ISO14040-1997, Environmental management-- Life cycle assessment-- Principles and framework
 Different ways to provide the same
function
• Hold coffee
– Plastic cup, polystyrene cup, ceramic cup, china cup,
thermos, …
• Maintain a tidy haircut
– Plastic comb, metal comb, razor …
• Mowing your lawn
– Power mower, reel mower, a goat …
• Protecting a surface from corrosion
– Painting, anodizing, make from plastic ….

From Wenzel, H., M. Hauschild, L. Alting, 2000, Environmental Assessment of Products: volume 1: Methodology, tools, and case
studies in product development, Chapman Hall Publishers, New York.
 Functional Unit
• ISO14040-1997: “a measure of the
performance of the functional outputs of the
product system”
• Includes:
– A magnitude
– A duration
– A level of quality
 System Boundaries
• ISO14040-1997:
– What materials/ equipment will be included
• How will this be determined
– What phases of the life cycle will be included
• The reality
• often by material weight (% of product)
• facilities, equipment, and infrastructure are often
neglected
 The Life Cycle Inventory
• Create a process flow diagram/ mass balance
for the life cycle.
• Identify
– The product flows between unit processes
– Material and energy use and waste that comes
from or goes to the environment
 The Unit Process

For each unit process, identify inputs, outputs, and

recovery as follows:
Closed Loop Reuse/ Recycle

Inputs Outputs
Raw or Unit Product
Intermediate Process Co-Products= open loop reuse/ recycle
Materials Waste (fugitive or to treatment: air,
Energy water, solid)
 Process Data Sources
• Measurements
• LCI databases: USDatabase Project, Boustead, SimaPro, GaBi,
DEAM, BUWAL, APME (plastics data)
• Literature data:
– LCA reports
– Engineering References: Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Kirk-
Othmer, Ulman, etc.
– Journal and conference papers
– National laboratory research reports
– Emission factors (AP-42, etc.)
– EPA sector notebooks
– Computation/ Parametric Models (for example, GREET)
 Classification
• Qualitative process of categorizing inventory
flows
Impact Categories in TRACI Abrev Unit of Measure
Global Warming GW kg CO2
Acidification AC moles H+ equiv
Eutrophication EU kg N
Ozone Depletion OD kg CFC-11
Ecotoxicity EC lbs 2,4-D equiv
Human Health Cancer HHC lbs C6H6 equiv
Fossil Fuel FF MJ
Photochemical Smog PS g NOX equiv
Water Use WU gal
Land Use LU t&e species
Human Health Noncancer HHNC lbs C7H7 equiv
Human Health Criteria HHCR total DALYs
 Classification

AMMONIA
HYDROCHLORIC ACID

• Acidification
HYDROFLUORIC ACID
NITRIC OXIDE
NITROGEN OXIDES (NOX)
SULFUR DIOXIDE
SULFUR OXIDES (SOX)

AMMONIA
AMMONIUM
• Eutrophication BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
NITRATE
NITRIC OXIDE
NITROGEN
NITROGEN OXIDES (NOX)
PHOSPHATE
PHOSPHORUS
 Classification: Global Warming

• -(CF2)4CH(OH)- • HFC-161 • HFE-338MCF2

• (CF3)2CFOCH3 • HFC-227EA • HFE-347MCC3
• (CF3)2CHOCH3 • HFC-23 • HFE-347-MCF2
• (CF3)2CHOCHF2 • HFC-236CB • HFE-356MCF3
• (CF3)2CHOH • HFC-236EA • HFE-356MEC3
• (CF3)CH2OH • HFC-236FA • HFE-356PCC3
• C2F6 • HFC-245CA • HFE-356PCF2
• CARBON DIOXIDE • HFC-245FA • HFE-356PCF3
• CARBON TETRAFLUORIDE • HFC-32 • HFE-374PCF2
• C-C3F6 • HFC-365MFC • HFE-7100
• C-C4F8 • HFC-41 • HFE-7200
• CF3 CF2CH2OH • HFC-4310MEE • HG-01
• CH3OCH3 • HFE-125 • HG-10
• FIC-1311 • HFE-134 • H-GALDEN 1040X
• HCFE-235DA2 • HFE-143A • METHANE
• HFC-125 • HFE-227EA • NF3
• HFC-134 • HFE-236EA2 • NITROUS OXIDE
• HFC-134A • HFE-236FA • PERFLUOROBUTANE
• HFC-143 • HFE-245CB2 • PERFLUOROHEXANE
• HFC-143A • HFE-245FA1 • PERFLUOROPENTANE
• HFC-152 • HFE-245FA2 • PERFLUOROPROPANE
• HFC-152A • HFE-254CB2 • SF5CF3
• HFE-263FB2 • SF6
• HFE-329MCC2
 Classification: Carcinogens
• 1,1,1,2-TETRACHLOROETHANE
• 1,1,2,2-TETRACHLOROETHANE
• 1,1,2-TRICHLOROETHANE
• 1,1-DICHLOROETHANE
• 1,1-DICHLOROETHYLENE
• 1,1-DIMETHYLHYDRAZINE
• 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-
HEPTACHLORODIBENZOFURAN
• 1,2-DIBROMOETHANE
• 1,2-DICHLOROETHANE
• 1,2-DICHLOROPROPANE
• 1,3-BUTADIENE
• 1,3-DICHLOROBENZENE
• 1,3-DICHLOROPROPENE
• 1,4-DICHLOROBENZENE
• 1,4-DIOXANE
• 11,12-BENZOFLUORANTHENE
• 1-CHLORO-2,3-EPOXYPROPANE
• 1-CHLORO-4-NITROBENZENE
• 1-NAPHTYL N-METHYLCARBAMATE
• 2,3,4,7,8-
PENTACHLORODIBENZOFURAN
• 1,2-DIBROMOETHANE
• 1,2-DICHLOROETHANE
• 1,2-DICHLOROPROPANE
• 1,3-BUTADIENE
• 1,3-DICHLOROBENZENE
• 1,3-DICHLOROPROPENE
• 1,4-DICHLOROBENZENE
• 1,4-DIOXANE
• 11,12-BENZOFLUORANTHENE
• 1-CHLORO-2,3-EPOXYPROPANE
• 1-CHLORO-4-NITROBENZENE
• 1-NAPHTYL N-METHYLCARBAMATE
• 2,3,4,7,8-PENTACHLORODIBENZOFURAN
• 2,3,7,8-TCDD
• 2,3,7,8-TETRACHLORODIBENZOFURAN
• 2,4,6-TRICHLOROPHENOL
• 2,4,6-TRINITROTOLUENE
• 2,4-D [ACETIC ACID (2,4-DICHLOROPHENOXY)-]
• 2,4-DIAMINOTOLUENE
• 2,4-DINITROTOLUENE
• 2,6-DINITROTOLUENE
• etc
 Global Warming Potentials as Equivalency
Factors
• Process X emits 5 kg methane and 4 kg nitrous oxide
• gCH4 = 5 kg, gN2O = 4 kg
– The equivalency factors are the 100-year Global Warming Potentials
(GWPs):
• qglobal warming- CH4 = GWPCH4 = 21 g CO2/ g CH4
• qglobal warming- N2O = GWPN2O = 310 g CO2/ g N2O
– THEREFORE the potential contribution to global warming for methane
is
• qglobal warming- CH4 x gCH4 = 5,000 g x 21 g CO2/ g CH4=105,000 g CO2
– AND the total contribution of Process X to global warming is:
• hglobal warming = (105,000 + 1,240,000) g CO2 = 1,345 kg CO2
 Impact Assessment
• Characterization
– Inventory materials are weighted by their contribution to
different impacts
• Normalization
– Characterization results are compared to important levels
of impacts (at the national level, for the technology being
replaced, etc.)
• Valuation
– Impacts are weighted by their value to decision makers
 Biodiesel LCAs
• Biodiesel
– is a renewable diesel fuel substitute.
– can be made from a variety of natural oils and fats.
• Biodiesel is made by chemically combining any natural oil or fat
with an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol. Methanol has been
the most commonly used alcohol in the commercial production of
biodiesel.
• In Europe, biodiesel is widely available in both its neat form
(100% biodiesel, also known as B100) and in blends with
petroleum diesel. European biodiesel is made predominantly
from rapeseed oil (a cousin of canola oil).
• In the United States, initial interest in producing and using
biodiesel has focused on the use of soybean oil as the primary
feedstock mainly because the United States is the largest
producer of soybean oil in the world.

From Sheehan, et al. (1998) “Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel for Use in an Urban Bus,”
NREL/SR-580-24089 UC Category 1503
 Why LCA of Biodiesel?
• Proponents of biodiesel as a substitute for diesel fuel
(in blends or in its neat form) can point to a number
of potential advantages for biodiesel that could
support a number of strategies for addressing
national issues:
– Reducing dependence on foreign petroleum…
– Leveraging limited supplies of fossil fuels….
– Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions….
– Reducing Air Pollution and Related Public Health Risks….
– Benefiting our domestic economy….

From Sheehan, et al. (1998) “Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel for Use in an Urban Bus,”
NREL/SR-580-24089 UC Category 1503
 Biodiesel Synthesis Pathways

From Holbein, et al. (2004) “Canadian Biodiesel Initiative: Aligning Research Needs and Priorities With the Emerging Industry,”
Prepared for Natural Resources Canada
 Biodiesel LCAs

• Several biodiesel LCAs have been performed

(US, Canada, Germany…)
• The foremost US study was a LCI funded by
the USDOE and US Department of Agriculture:

Sheehan, et al. (1998) “Life

Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel
and Petroleum Diesel for Use
in an Urban Bus,”
at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24089.pdf
 The US Biodiesel LCA
• Reductions in Petroleum and Fossil
Energy Consumption
– Substituting 100% biodiesel (B100) for
petroleum diesel in buses reduces the life
cycle consumption of petroleum by 95%.
• This benefit is proportionate with the blend
level of biodiesel used. When a 20% blend of
biodiesel and petroleum diesel (B20) is used as
a substitute for petroleum diesel in urban
buses, the life cycle consumption of petroleum
drops 19%.
 The US Biodiesel LCA
– It was found that the production processes for
biodiesel and petroleum diesel are almost
identical in their efficiency of converting a raw
energy source (in this case, petroleum and
soybean oil) into a fuel product. The difference
between these two fuels is in the ability of
biodiesel to utilize a renewable energy source.
• Biodiesel yields 3.2 units of fuel product energy for
every unit of fossil energy consumed in its life cycle.
The production of B20 yields 0.98 units of fuel product
energy for every unit of fossil energy consumed.
• By contrast, petroleum diesel’s life cycle yields only 0.83
units of fuel product energy per unit of fossil energy
consumed. Such measures confirm the “renewable”
nature of biodiesel.
 The US Biodiesel LCA
• Reductions in CO2 Emissions
– Given the low demand for fossil energy associated with
biodiesel, it is not surprising that biodiesel’s life cycle
emissions of CO2 are substantially lower than those of
petroleum diesel.
– Biodiesel reduces net emissions of CO2 by 78.45%
compared to petroleum diesel. For B20, CO2 emissions
from urban buses drop 15.66%.
– In addition, biodiesel provides modest reductions in total
methane emissions, compared to petroleum diesel.
Methane is another, even more potent, greenhouse gas.
Thus, use of biodiesel to displace petroleum diesel in
urban buses is an extremely effective strategy for reducing
CO2 emissions.
 The US Biodiesel LCA
• Changes in Air Pollutant Emissions
– The effect of biodiesel on air quality is more complex.
Biodiesel, as it is available today, offers substantial
improvements in some air pollutants, while it leads to
increases in others.
– The use of B100 in urban buses results in substantial
reductions in life cycle emissions of total particulate
matter, carbon monoxide and sulfur oxides (32%, 35% and
8% reductions, respectively, relative to petroleum diesel’s
life cycle).
 The US Biodiesel LCA
• Particulates, Carbon Monoxide and Sulfur Oxides...
– are targeted by EPA because of the important role they
play in public health risks, especially in urban areas where
the acute effects of these pollutants may be greater.
– Given the concern over urban air quality, it is important to
note that most of these reductions occur because of lower
emissions at the tailpipe. For buses operating in urban
areas, this translates to an even greater potential benefit:
• Tailpipe emissions of particulates less than 10 microns in size are
68% lower for buses run on biodiesel (compared to petroleum
diesel). In addition, tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide are 46%
lower for buses run on biodiesel (compared to petroleum diesel).
Biodiesel completely eliminates emissions of sulfur oxides at the
tailpipe.
• The reductions in air emissions reported here are proportional to
the amount of biodiesel present in the fuel. Thus, for B20, users
can expect to see 20% of the reductions reported for biodiesel
used in its neat form (B100).
From Sheehan, et al. (1998) “Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel for Use in an Urban Bus,”
NREL/SR-580-24089 UC Category 1503
 The US Biodiesel LCA
• Increased Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)…
– NOx is one of three pollutants implicated in the formation
of ground level ozone and smog in urban areas (NOx, CO
and hydrocarbons).
– The use of B100 in urban buses increases life cycle
emissions of NOx by 13.35%. Blending biodiesel with
petroleum proportionately lowers NOx emission. B20
exhibits a 2.67% increase in life cycle emissions of NOx.
– Most of this increase is directly attributable to increases in
tailpipe emissions of NOx. B100, for example, increases
tailpipe levels of NOx by 8.89%.

From Sheehan, et al. (1998) “Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel for Use in an Urban Bus,”
NREL/SR-580-24089 UC Category 1503
 The US Biodiesel LCA
• Hydrocarbons—higher on a life cycle basis, but lower
at the tailpipe…
– The increase in hydrocarbon emissions is due to release of
hexane in the processing of soybeans and volatilization of
agrochemicals applied on the farm.
– Total life cycle emissions of hydrocarbons are 35% higher
for B100, compared to petroleum diesel. However,
emissions of hydrocarbons at the tailpipe are actually 37%
lower.
– These results point out opportunities for improving the life
cycle of biodiesel. Future biodiesel research should focus
on ways of reducing hexane releases from today’s current
levels in soybean crushing plants.
– Improvements in use of agrochemicals on the farm would
have similarly beneficial effects.
From Sheehan, et al. (1998) “Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel for Use in an Urban Bus,”
NREL/SR-580-24089 UC Category 1503
 The UK Biodiesel LCA: with Impact
Assessment
• A UK-based LCA included impact assessment considering two
types of biodiesel production. One where the biodiesel is
produced using more conventional means and one where it is
produced :
– Using low nitrogen methods of cultivation
– With the rapeseed straw as an alternative heating fuel for
the drying, solvent extraction, refining and esterification
process.
– With biodiesel as the fuel for agricultural machinery and
transportation.
• Among the 2, conventional production is considered a
conservative representation as follows.
From Mortimer, et al. (2003) “EVALUATION OF THE COMPARATIVE ENERGY, GLOBAL WARMING AND SOCIO-
ECONOMIC COSTS AND BENEFITS OF BIODIESEL,” Prepared for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
 A UK Biodiesel LCIA: Carbon Dioxide and
GHG Emissions
• Biodiesel is described as ‘carbon neutral’ such that
any CO2 emissions associated with it comes from a
source outside that of combustion of the fuel.
• In fact there are many sources of CO2 associated
with biodiesel production. Most of the emissions
come from the esterification process, the production
of fertilizer and the extraction of the oil from the
seed.
– These CO2 emissions are not always produced directly
from the process but taken from the energy requirement.
What this means is that the energy a process uses has an
associated emission. For example electricity used in the
esterification process may well come from a coal power
plant, so the amount of electricity used can be related to
the amount of CO2 released from the plant.
 A UK Biodiesel LCIA: Carbon Dioxide and
GHG Emissions
• It was found that for every ton of biodiesel produced
916 ± 52 kg CO2 was released into the atmosphere.
• This dominates the greenhouse gas emissions: for
each ton of biodiesel produced the equivalent of
1,516 ± 88 kg of CO2 are released.
 A UK Biodiesel LCIA: Carbon Dioxide
Emissions

From http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/02-03/biofuels/why_lca.htm and

Mortimer, et al. (2003) “EVALUATION OF THE COMPARATIVE ENERGY, GLOBAL WARMING AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
COSTS AND BENEFITS OF BIODIESEL,” Prepared for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
 • By quantifying the amount of energy required to produce
biodiesel it is possible not only to see what processes require the
most energy but also to establish an energy balance over the life
cycle. I.e. the energy you get out against the energy you put in.

• For every
ton of
biodiesel
produced
16,269 ±
896 MJ of
energy is
required.

From http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/02-03/biofuels/why_lca.htm and

Mortimer, et al. (2003) “EVALUATION OF THE COMPARATIVE ENERGY, GLOBAL WARMING AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
COSTS AND BENEFITS OF BIODIESEL,” Prepared for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
 A UK Biodiesel LCIA: What does it mean?
• Not surprisingly the largest energy demands match
up with the CO2 emissions.
• A ton of biodiesel will contain around 40,800MJ of
energy.
Energy Balance = Energy OUT / Energy IN
= 40,800 / 16.269
= 2.5
• For these number to mean anything however there
has to be something against which to compare them.
In the case of biodiesel this would be the LCA of
fossil diesel.
 A UK Biodiesel LCIA: Bio- vs. Fossil- Diesel
• CO2 Emissions
– For each MJ of biodiesel produced 0.025Kg of CO2 is
released.
– For each MJ of fossil diesel produced 0.087Kg of CO2 is
released.
• GHG Emissions
– For each MJ of biodiesel produced 0.041Kg of GHG CO2
equivalent is released.
– For each MJ of fossil diesel produced 0.095Kg of GHG CO2
equivalent is released.
• Energy Requirements
– For each MJ of biodiesel produced 0.45 MJ is required.
– For each MJ of fossil diesel produced 1.26 MJ is required.