)-

.am#ffI::
stamen
MODULE 1
Cst's mac
learning Outcomes Reproduction Angiosperm style )
:
in

understanding of evolution ( underlying processes leading to diversity & complexity ↳ requires pollen meet/travel to ovules cegglt
y
• to
-

,
•
biology : evolving science -

observation / experiments / data analysis →

palmation essential
•
connections between major ctoncepts in biology Abiotic :
② Biotic :
① Evolution ② cells ③ Information ④ Regulation ⑤ Interconnectedness -

by wind water rain lte

, ,
a
pollenatovs delivers the
, pollen cvvaitractim )
sexual Reproduction
LECTURE 1 :
Reproduction
why ? species reproduce to ① pass on their genetic into ② continue the species External fertilization internal fertilization
both W v10 partner asexual rs sexual Reproduction where?
it can occur or
& aquatic
:
Aquatic only Terrestrial
-

↳ Asexual : Wb partner female produce identical offspring .

Why ?
sessile organisms selective over who fertilizes the egg
↳ sexual i W/ partner (fusion of two haploid gametes to produce zygote (2N)
how ? -

requires behavior / adaptations -

motile to find partner 4 mate
before sexual 13 bya) about
a
-

asexual occurred meiotic sex only 0AMred

,
to ensure fertilization -
Behaviors dy adaptations to choose
11.2 by a) →
offsprings similar but differentfrom Hardt * limited control
partner
asexual reproduction is much efficient thine , energy wise )
more
although

}
-

possibly because sexual reproduction allows Oviparous ( eggs ) Vivaporous (young )

asexual didn't dominate →
fine of diversity consequently
.
'
more adaptive in variable environment form ? egg live young

Asexual available in all kngdoms :

dev where .
externally internally
Bacteria Archaea Protists Fungi Plantae Animalia nutrient ? yolk from mother

↳ available
types Fission Fragmentation Budding , vegetative propagation ,
:
, ,
protection / shell Lt impedes water loss ) 1 mother 's body protect embryo
spore Formation Parthenogenesis ,

sexual available in 4 kingdoms

protists Fung ; Plantae Animalia :
LECTURE 2 :
Respiration
↳ varieties dioecious vs. monoecious / hermaphrodites
:
:
gas exchange between organism 4 environment to release energy from
→ male 4 → HE3111 both sex organs present in one their food to fuel cellular processes
female
① Anaerobic ② Fermentation ③ Aerobic

[
:
fertilization c. R c. R

{
internal vs .
external
°" " "" " " ^^ "
"
" → "" " " ° ""
" " """ " "" ^ "" "" • *
"

→ lay eggs or birth to young organism Cehbryo internally der ) .

-
faster release energy lactic acid or alcohol
-

19 times more ATP released

i. few H . many offspring Cru . K strategists ) -

mainly occur @ * technically not respiration ↳

possibly allountnbk for

environment w/o oxygen because it doesn't use ETC multicellularity 4

{
Asexual sexual
larger organism size
parent one parent two parents -

anaerobic CR evolve for first form of life Creliant on CO2 tch 4)

genetically identical genetic variation bacteria 13.4 v5
Genetics more atomic &
-

photosynthetic by a) → aerobic em merged ~ 2.819 by a

→ diseases easily passed on
→
↳ Mine oxygen production -9
→ harder to adapt could be more resistant to diseases → ocean accentuation → atmosphere overload

super efficient Time for mating * multicellular terrestrial organisms emerged later
Efficiency Tmredg
E Requires extra E and even

require mating much slower because it can only the cell

powerhouse of
→
→ doesn't -
mitochondria : where OR happens ;
raise half of what asexual Rprodnetwin
→ rapid population growth
↳
endosymbiosis :
prokaryotic cell host engulfed .

could achieve with extra E- 4 Time → ① eukaryote @ aerobic prokaryote

anaerobic prokaryote ( 0kW - Wb 0)
FISSION (B A P F PI A) : more common in BAP →② prokaryote @ facultative

↳ mitochondria do lactic acid fermentation

dy
can
parent elongates divide into equal parts
i.
+ alga

4- Binary : two equal C B A) ↳ multiple :X cells produced ( p )

-

increased oxygen level → aerobic respiration → mass ATP production

I
→ larger organism → large trkhea to maintain cellular processes →
to
BUDDING ( B A P F PI A)
> more space for other E needed cont
organs → even more .
.

budding site
.

i.
Imagine grape organism divide Itself into two unequal parts ( usually @
,

↳ breaks off to be a new daughter cell 4 organism

-
toxicity reversal
-
Bacterial 4 Archaea Respiration @ cytoplasm (absence of organelle )
FRAGMENTATION ( P F PI A) :
Eukaryote ( multicellular) only ① Obligate aerobic bacteria
organism
§ Fragment : of parent regenerate itself to be new
② obligate anaerobic bacteria →
hydrogen sulfide or methane
EVEGETATNE PROPAGATION Multicellular only
PI :
③ Facultative anaerobic bacteria 1%0-0-1112 8×0-0-104120121
: new Plant grow from parts of parent plant ex] roots ,
stem ,
bulbs etc ,

SPORE FORMATION ( P F PI ) : unicellular & multicellular Aerobic C. R in Fungi (most of

fungi with exception of indunater Fungi )
-

i.
Imagine bubbles ( spores) units of life that is packaged which doesn't require ↳ Hyphae absorb
= : filament branches to oxygen in soil (airspace 5)
'

fertilization ( loos of units) → Oz 1- coz can transfer across thin outer wall
* for dispersal to new locations G- can be
sexually produced as well ) Fermentation E. food
-
[from glucose → pyruvate
PARTHENOGENESIS ( A ) : Multicellular → Diploid individual
•
fungi bread miso olives beer wine
only
,
, , ,

unfertilized egg develops into new organism ( individual ) parent must be female
:
↳ Saccharomyces → Ethanol . Ethanol -1 CO2 CO2
Lt can be reproduce sexually as well )
,

• bacteria Cheese, Olives soy sauce , yoghurt, kimchi Kornbluth

Haploid Cn) vs Diploid
,

(2n) ,

✗
-

Aspergillus 4
.

↳ Lactic acid Lactobacillus → lactic acid

↳ Humans spend most lifetime as Diploid and is haploid only @ gamete stage
Respiration in plants ( oxygen diffusion )
↳ Plants spend most time haploid * (refer lower)
-

as diploid but also a little bitas

↳ Fungi spend most lifetime as haploid ↳ stomata ( leaves dy stems) centrals stems of woody
, plants 4 roots
-
alternation of generation between haploid & diploid ( both multicellular)
1- absorption via roots

↳ Found in all plants Ct protists 4 Fungi ) dork : c. R

only 1 dim : CR W PS 1 light : PS mainly
: diploid form sporophyte → give rise to spore ↳ CO2 intake Oz release
↳ 02 intake , coz release ,

haploid form
give rise to gametes (requires fertilization)
-

gametophyte Respiration
-

→
in
plant roots croot adaptation based on the environment )
↳ For Fungi : 3. key stages
aerial roots ( pneumatophore ) for anoxic / waterlogged soil Cet
Mangrove)
-

① haploid Basidiospores →
plasmogamy Cattoplasm fused W 2 nuclei ) p nuclei fusion
.

aeroxcnyma : air pockets in plant tissue

-

② Dikoryotic mycelium lntn ) with basidium → Fertilization @ basidium ( karyogamy ) ↳ exchanges gas exposed → submerged ← Diploid

③ Diploid zygote undergo meiosis to form ① -

Stomata ( poms )
:
for gas exchange + inevitable water loss (sporophyte )
↳ process may my ↳ open
4 close depending on the turgor pressure of the plant
?⃝
 -

autotroph adaptation on land C Where water & nutrient lacks / is limited )

-

high turgor pressure stomata open / low pressure stomata closed : :

↳plants made adaptations to a quire
required resources .

vary in its apatite ( length ) and density bÉdns → Roots to extract water by
-

dissolved nutrients from soil

1- vascular tissue to transport the absorbed resources within organism
ex ) low coz environment to size { 9 density ↳ Cor ,
light, water level etc
coating
.

→ cuticle to minimize water loss

* verse leaves for
photosynthesis
Respiration in Animals 02+841206 → thot coz ATP → tissue for structural +
-

+
support [ size / types )
: Oz intake → Coz exhale four ( possible ) stages ( not an animal use )
leaves ① Roots ⇐ (root hair cells) Vascular Sys .

1. Breathing → 2- Gas exchange → 3. Circulation → 4. CR

Five different system :
-
photosytthetic apparatus -
earliest vascular land plants w/o -
phloem sugar transport
:

-
increased SA for PS4 gas true roots -
xylem : water + mineral ions
Direct Diffusion -
requires net surface for gas to dissolve { then diffuse exchange t good for metabolism)
: underground
①
vascular plant organ
↳ reinforced with lignin → endure
hydrostatic pressure
skin based
cadrawced )
② integumentary modified overlapping branches ↳ nutrient cnn.p.a.mg ,s , +

⑧⑨(M&⑧Ñh ☒ ⑧MYgg
- -

→ flatten → leaves n.ng.in +

www..pro .

water uptake from soil

③ TriChen insects -

drain → secondary growth

* most important organ for ↳ anchorage + support ( better growth
±
④ Gills -

fish vascular plants ! ↳ synthesize plant hormones allow increased plant size because
diversity and stricture varies
. .

⑤ Lungs mammals -1 birds ④ nutritional reserve innsport of sugar

-

u> stores
-

③ ⑤ ② by environment & niche

↳ can be modified
↳
4
conducting
water to
:

larger areas
for purposes
① Direct Diffusion ( Obtain Oxygen through surface ) (ex flat norm /sponges ) -
ex ) aerial , clasping prop , , contractile ↳ xylem endure pressure better

climbing stpportt.fm
to

Lp only in small K 1mm diameter : flat , sea animals ( wet surface) 90, uptake in substrate

→
enough rely
small oxygen obtained through to on outer membrane of cells other ingenious whys to obtain food
→ into vascularsystem
② Integumentary (skin based surface gas exchange into parasitic ( mistletoe ) : take nutrients from host
directly ) by penetrating plant wall W roots
-

circulation
carnivorous ( venus flytrap)
4 environment Lex earthworm ,
-

amphibians etc)
↳ wet/ moist skin ; derive nutrients from captured insects ; trapping structure
.

Symbiotic legume C pea plants ) symbiotic N fixing bacteria in nuts nodules

-

:
③ Trachea in insects ( tubes inside the
-

body branched for diffusion) , ↳ helpful in nutrient poor son

'

↳ Spiracles : openings to trachea Can open and close as needed

symbiotic autotrophic algae 17=00xanthene ) provide organic
-

symbiosis w coral
.

↳ can be ventilated with muscle contraction ( influence of impermeable exoskeleton ) macromolecules → receive coz phosphates nitrogen compounds
,
,

→ not related to the circulatory Sys ( doesn't interact * leave when temp 9 (global warming issue
-

029 coz d) protests /

④ Gits ( aquatic Sys inside organism or outside of body as profusion )
Heterotroph
,

feedings animal in
.

~
I
branched folded thin tissue filaments counter current Ms ←
9
4> :
Diffusion : nutrient absorbed then an membrane ( Bactria ) passive or active
, .
-

→ rapid diffusion of oxygen from Later to

circulatory Sys fcoelomicflnid ) Phagocytosis engulfing food / w structure to ( Amoeba )
prey sponges
:

⑤ Lungs
, -

(animal Kingdom ) → increase SA * engulf ,

Filterfeeding : eat everything then tilter the tater out onn consuming the prey
u>
amphibians
: air
sac like lung ; bronchial suction
-

↳ Reptiles : sac like ↳ straining organic matter (food) from mate ↳ requires filter structures
sometimes subdivided w aspirating pump Instead of mouth
-

diverse species
,
→ Cit blue whale 1 krill s)
↳ Mammals :
.

branching lung W alveoli ( small air pockets) W diaphragm /ribcage .

↳ Bird :
parallel tubes cpora bronchi ) w air sacs take up air -1 pump lungs krill 5 Blue whale
→ to fulfill high
1

oxygen need from flying

⑥ others .
. . → 70% oxygen needed description marine crustaceans largest manual filter feeder

anus breathing : sea cucumber /

Fitzroy river turtles cloacal gill respiration phytoplanktons b. Zooplankton
:
-

prey krill
-

diving bell spider w personally aunted air bubble for ihderwuto dive
comb like structure fillers
-
fringed plate (fingernail ) baleen
Sloth w
lung attached to ribcage so diaphragm is not squeezed when hanging NHS
-

attachedto
.

400 million tonnes of them upper jaw

Fave energy 4 tonnes every day
staph food source for marine
-
-

evolution history is mystery

LECTURE 3 :
Feeding maybe largest microplastics ?
-

but
-

parasitism : feed from host species w/o killing them →

probably had teeth
: foods necessary for
livings to fuel their cellular processes (function replication reproduce)
-

, ,
no bereft give
→ producer ( autotrophs :
synthesizing own foods ) vs Consumer ( heterotrophs : eat ) ↳ no need energy in finding food ; but you have
to exert no control
↳ can be way to evolve sometimes to hold onto your host
one
classify organisms →

1
autotrophs heterotrophs tapeworm Jawless fish clamp reys / hogfish )
origin self + nutrition others 1- nutrition what? vertebrate gut parasite blood sucking parasite of fish
+
-4 use scolex to attach to intestinal
B A P F sucking head
-

Kingdoms B A P pl heterotrophs
-

how ? lining absorption then epidermis

,
-
used to have exoskeleton In skin
synthesize own food but need early forms
-

must consume thin up

organic carbon ↳ super
-

now ? source inorganic nutrients macromolecules ( glucose ) + other nutrients external digestion
-

↳N P S etc
,
, by consuming other forms of life ↳
Fungi : feed thru absorption using hyphae ,
which secretes digestive enzyme breaking down

{
-
chemo autotrophs : (bacteria) take inorganic
-

carnivores : meat eaters substrates , then nutrients absorbed

types ? compounds ci.e.kz hlzs , Chu Fest ) , herbivores vegans
liquid Lith sponge like month
, .
-
:

Oxidate and then form ORAMK molecules humans i eat everything ↳ Insect :
taste with feet , excrete enzymes , suck up the
highlighted ,
-

omnivores :

source of E phototrophs (green plants bacteria, algae ) detritivores decomposer (decaying matter ) → diverse mouthparts : chewing piercing / smelling carving siphoning sponging
: -
: -
:
,
, ,
,
,

take simple inorganic molecule use sunlight scavengers Kinky HE for

juvenile accumulating
-
:
↳ invertebrates spend most of its tclltime as resources
.

form required organic molecule -

insectivores : insects enter
reproduction when it becomes adult
in food web? / producer 1 Consumers ( primary secondary
,
- . .
) → mouthpart may change
growing ; some do not feed when it becomes adult

-
ancestral stateof heterotrophs (~ 4.517 my a) : earth full of
primo dial soup ( acid-base )
-
Jaws
↳ earliest form :
something close to bacteria ; primitive heterotrophs fed by acid 1- base up early fishes jawless but gin arches evolved into jaw (teeth followed soon after)
→ form of
fermentation taking organic molecule and chemically → reason why marine invertebrates declined
down breaking
photo autotrophs photosynthetic bacteria
: Teeth
-

12.7-b49 cyanobacteria like evolved from jaws Homo darts Hetuodants

① an oxygenic photosynthesis ② Oxygenic photosynthesis ↳ : ,

→
Homo dents : an same teeth ; prevalent in sharks and reptiles
-

Endosymbiotic theory (sumbiogenesis) ( proven W electron microscopes ) -

→ Hetero darts : variety of teeth; mammals

↳ mitochondria da chloroplasts :
endosymbionts (organelle) ↳ incisors , carnies premolars , molars
:
phylogenetically related reduced genome [ own DNA)
,
# Of chloroplast ray ,
,
↳ tells whether
organism is a predator herbivore ,
or bark scraping
-
use inorganic compounds [Has S , Fest ) or organic source if -

unique boys of eating

{
,

" "" " " "" " "" """ " "" " """
"° ↳ donjon fish : pull out the lower jaw (space between brain case & vertebrate)→ eat larger prey
Chemo extremophiles (perfect for harsh environment i. e. deep sea not volcano )
-

,
↳ dragonfly :( larvae ) hinged mouthpart extend Cfoid )
-

and retract
-

Sulfolobus ( archaeal ; volcanic spring : 75~fo.cn 2-3 pH W Sulfur

↳ Lysogenic rims infect these for → don't kn the host cell protection BGEWRE 4 : Excretion
UH Hzs molecules for electrons [ bacteriachlorophyllS ]
-
or organic
low diversity Secretion Elimination
(anoxygenlu)
-

adapted to harsh conditions hot springs ; stagnant water → Excretion

adaptation South AndrosBlack hole
-
nutrient recycling {sulfur novel
photosynthesis )
removal Of waste product movement of materials -
removal of unabsorbed food
photo
-
-

purple sulfur bacteria ( byproduct of

-
- :

something that has never been

↳ controls all / body water 14 that has a special task to
↳ release light E- to environment to heat itup → outcompete other organisms
concentration part of the body
↳ maintain solute accomplish after living the
↳ faces
-
oxygen from water → oxygen as byproduct
↳ excretion of metabolic waste / cell or organism
other unwanted substance
cyanobacteria Algae ( Eukaryote)
( oxygenic)
f
and eliminate
earliest photo autotrophs ↳ closest relative to terrestrial plants Can be liquid gas solid all species evolved to efficiently excrete
-
-
, ,
↳
v01 )
additional nutrients through diffusion thin multicellular GSA
:
-
-

concentration) inefficient
cg, membrane (
photo f- inability to excrete eliminate may disrupt
-
,
or osmosis require water to obtain extra nutrients → or

structures that rely on water

↳ no metabolism → death
→ no desiccation
?⃝
 1- obtain food be reversed to excrete passive active

µ
→ an 9 function can in principle
"

" "" " "" ^" " " """ " " Mh "" " "° """ ↳ the " "" " " Nd "" " *
* " Mb" "
the" °" " ""
Y" "
↳ bacteria ↳ solutes like protein environment
fungi some aquatic plants
, , amino acid etc
air, or in some cases hosts
,
by
,
:
active
-
energy expensive
transport :( mostly used > excretion h elimination that requires specific help
.

and
-

↳ meat balance between movement

control of where you are heading
no
develop reproduction
-

↳ this
organs / tells to do ↳ it allows efficiency → organism large and complex Akhtar mahntovncl and
↳ maybe you end up suboptimal location
-

plants : stomatal pores w guard cells @ outer surface of leaves and stem
q q
← guard cells in pairs controls the pore
opening by swelling /shrinking f( minimize
⑦
:
water loss)
← → inelastic
some
employ both
stomatal pore gas :
exchange ,
water loss hence water availability determine close /open -

Early adaptation for movement

-

animal : Flame cells ( excretory specialist) in freshwater invertebrates removing waste material Cilla pseudopod Flagella
↳ bundle proto nephritic ex ) hair covering outside of cells false feet long hair propelled around
flatworm / rotifers
: -
like
-
-
,

unicellular [ larger) -
unicellular amoeba push profusion from cell
specialized organs for excretion whip like and
-
animal 's
-

µ Nitrogen
-

- marine annelids / molluscs @

cytoplasm to produce pseudopods body of bacteria
↳ later organism came lids /
arthropods evolve complex nepnridia W associated gland larval House
↳ different directions or a
- locomotion inside Plane -

→ vertebrates : kidneys co-ordinated movement particular direction can serve sensory function for
+ liver -1 associated glands
-
-

→ need space !
chemical charges
↳ space for
organs : coelom (space in between gut da ectoderm filled w when food is Kate
fluid ) make
0010M
-
'
↳ sperms have these (critical ]
W/O Collom : Acoelom ate / single thieving
coelom : W/ coeio mate ↳ helicobacter for ulcers
separate from gut ↳ marine worms have parapodia
space for internal organ development
-

but then here nerve

→ enables increased body size ( here ! )
large animals can fit in all necessary organs -

Movement from water k transition

Protists Early Eukaryotes
+
( active reverse of phage)
-

exocytosis
: w lysosome , ↳ active propulsion cenidarians molluscs ) ,

↳
majority were removed W passive diffusion & osmosis ↳ active removal W Channels i expand -1
contracting of body muscle to take hater and push outwards .

Fungi contractile vacuous ( exocytosis with food vacuoles ) ↳ energy efficient

; congregate to obtain good nutrients & prey
-

↳ some
passively removed [diffusion /osmosis) ↳ actively using membrane channels
↳ for molluscs ( mouth to
uptake water ) + tentacles like pseudo feet and sensor
up control direction
→ penicillin Cfungi ) killed staphyloc.ci → development of penicillin
↳ variations :
mantle Ghats ) , muscular foot ; some as adults don't move
-

Plants : ① Transpiration ②Storing ③ Diffusion

-
cephalopods propulsion / Slugs and snails → rhythmic hues of musclecontraction
↳ mucus to assist L especially on land movement
① : Gaseous waste + water excreted through stomata .
lettice is ,
outersurface Esltnlfmits) -

annelids → chaetae .

↳ 97 v99.5.1 hater lost through .

transpiration day ) -1 gultntion (@ night] ↳ marine worm :
free swing 1- sedentary + parapodia on body segments
↳ guttahim : xylem sap gather on the tip /edge of leaves ( or fungi ) at night ,
with → trochophore larvae : free swimming ciliated larva

closed stomata & build up root pressure ↳ Earthworms vibrations

live in soil super Coy
-

'

, react to ,

of haste muscle contrition C rhythmc)

+ leaves ( accumulation vacuoles of ageing cells)
② : stored in bark in
→ chaetae allows to anchor Wile

potentially toxic substances Vertebrates chordates CWHL notochord my omoes muscle )

↳ removes :
eventually fall off and die nerve chord
-

↳ , ,

humans are em maple syrup,

'
↳
+rubber
↳ early chordate fish W gill slits + post and I toil -

③ :(aauatic plants ) diffusion to water / muscle)

.

terrestrial into soil ↳ early fish : Carti logons (sharks , rays) moving Wfm / tails (active w
↳ reverse of diffusion and osmosis of gradient cart it agirls fish
root hair cells following the chemical -
-
bony fish
→ for aerudtic : leaves E. roots ; importantpafhwayr increase SA ↳ Kye liver with low
density oil for buoyancy
↳ swim bladder

consumption by heterotrophs }
metabolism &
Nitrogenous waste followed by high :
protein ↳ lighter then bore
-

evolve into lungs ?

pectoral tins for dynamic tiff
↳ MUM : Ammonia (Nts ) Urea . Uric acid , guanine
↳
,

4- a
aÑatic fins to feet ?
bony fishes with long rays of bone some with substantial bored
-

terrestrial spiders ,

↳ support weight of the fish → evolved into tetrapods Ctktieaiks Konya

① [
Ammonia Urea Uric acid guanine → early amphibians gills by swim bladder lungs or rent lungs .

""" " M "" "" "" "" "" " "" " " " "
" " """ ↳ amphibian these require hater to reproduce ex] frog
days
"
" " : .

non-toxic non-toxic
-
requires lots of grater -
less water needed 91 Hint ?
-
no water
-

no water
=
Insects :
Elnseeta) Exoskeleton , six legs wings , moult ,
IN 9
per molecule 2 N per molecule 4 N per molecule 5N per molecule U> stiff membrane of exoskeleton straightened by veins → wings
no energy simple -4 ATP -1 -24 ATP + more E cost → from gills up early wings for locomotion in hotter surface reprodkl
high
-
-

synthesis more complex

synthesis
complex synthesis -

archosaurs :
polyphyletic group reptiles and birds [both need eggsÑep%%%
Invertebrate ↳ birds from dromaeosanrs WI Hatters dy wings
excretory organs (annelids insects i coelom to exterior
-

or
→ to fly :
bone less dense ,
9 chest muscle, feathers , airsaes
↳ proton ephridia - nephridia 2 more
stance
oxygen
( simple ) :
marine worms
earthworms :( complex)
-

change from reptiles to mammals per breath

+ ↳ narrower
Malpighian tribute 54s :
insects -1 spiders → ( Bard & reptile as well ) hip , femur directly underneath hip hip , int change .

↳ involvement of hindgut in excretion 4 elimination LN waste w faces) → walk up right quicker locomotion Conger legs)
,

Animal excretory organs :

kidney du liver cook brats )
→
undulating motion of back half CLM R ) to back half (forward that
↳ Kidney primary organ ( w help from skin gills gut some
: , water regulation) ( bowl like )
↳ for dolphins as well
Bipedal
, ,
humans
-

- :
↳ liver : breaks down
blood substances (toxin glucose RBC )
up reduction of big shortened pelvis , femur
toe in hard centered patella
.
, , ,
,

single opening) / mammals : anus and Uren

→ Bird and reptile : cloaca ( straight knees less robust upper arm , head up right
.
,
cacarateuy )
cautionary tale : leaf rolling caterpillar → free hand motion , better tool usages (manat ability to throw
dexterity)
-

↳ accumulated excretion attract parasitic wasp → shoot out faeces Wanat plate
,

VETVRE 6 :
Fossils
DUY flies + Puny beetles : buns is nutritional → scent / polarized moonlight
-

↳ lay eggs in dung ↳ feed on duty (some locate others trait for deny providers ) ,
i. Presented remains of any preserved trace of once living organism
anoxic environment
-
ant -

aphid mutualism (secretions ↳ some hard structure, quickly courted woo being dissolved in

↳ dnt protect aphid , aphid secrete honeydew for them ,

ant milk them
, aphid respond can be dated thru fpevntire anting)
1 other fossil )
LECTURE 5 :
Movement :
stratigraphy ( rock lanes) . Index dating w/ known date

i.
Movement for food mating . , habitat and escaping predators ; essential forsurvival absolute dating : Radiometric method treasure radioactive decay of easiest

land water air → tells us : dates , physiology ,

diet reproduction movement
, ,
, migration development ,

etc . . .

-
need to capture oxygen -
support hydrated , nutrient rich
.
-

gravity pulls down -

major evolutionary transition : gnome , eukaryote , multicellularity et .

find water to avoid dehydrate

environmentally buffered Ctenp strong wind current
-

↳ unit of reproduction cooperator complex Units fossils allow to uropod

-

Uv radiation new us
-
-
DNA damage extremely E- hunky from
, ,

strong currents
-

no structure
energy hungry
-

+Mint mill Allulrtty diversity in

-

, ,

complex / dynamic ecosystem buoyancy (need E- and structure → adoptive Adan

extinction
- -

first animal sponge Klee fossil -1 biomarkers

position)
:
to maintain a .

Extinction ↳ ma,
-
water level flutate ( shallow) -
light height -
new species evolve from originator +
Cell halls lots ofseeds increase chance new lineage
-

to
extinction loss of duesing
-

① :
substantial
.

vascular tissue of fertilization mass emerged from

-
-

new
lignin du park
-
Cilla I flagella large SA for lift 47 local or broad both posable
niche + absence
- -

-
seeds 4 spores
-
felt like protection
-
Enlarged muscle for flight Ordovician , Devonian Permian , Triassic Cretaceous of competitors
,

Fins / flippers I ,

Legs 443mn a cooling → worming

-

&
-

200 ma volcanic activity [cost I

lost 50-661 marine 85% Be
47% genera ooo -1 species lost
.

genera
.
?⃝
Human driver extinction : Dodo ,
Tasmanian tiger Guinan greed )
d t
hurting hunting / habitatdestroyed
↳ gourd b4 heightened extinction rate heading toward mass extinction

: habitat loss , spells intro pollution

, ,
over exploitation climate change
.

→ loss of some species → cascade effect

ex) Hawai I habitat 1021 Otr birds ( unique bird species extinct/fingered)
'

increase atmospheric cos ( last mad extinction 2-3%9 . 3

my a) .

rise # careenhang ↳ 9 Hallie is

↳ rapid temp
→ rising above the avenge rehpidhy
↳ ocean alldeification
,
deathbed calcification
 MODULE 2
LECTURE 7 : Intro to Evolution

✗
natural selection driver of evolution favoring certain
-
:
phenotypes for fitness
↳ cumulative change : evolution →
-

competition environment , selection , swim reproduce

ex) galapagos birds selected different beaks for their enrichment niche

Maaoeiohrtiri Micronation stabilizing directional disruptive

= changes in large taxonomic groups over µ .
: agents of change that shape selection selection selection
long periods of time the Gerome .
-

ex) birthheight of → industrial melanism h -

feeding of fish
→ natural Severin mutation , moth ""
Mr Paton
humans niche
Weinberg Theorem
,

Hardy drift
or ↳
partitioning
is maintained if
sexual reproduction genetic .
number of times based on size?
: o.eu/ic frequency case you
selection selection acts on dominant allele but cannot be fixated because recessive is
mutation random mating migrations genetic drift masked
-

→ no ,
no . no , no
,

'
↳
equal fitness ↳ Infinite pop size
- recessive allele shows delayed etteltdne to heterozygous genaotpe
=p -12 pq -1 92 I
.

→ + artificial selection : selection by human (domestication stocks]

BB Bb bb ← gerotpiv frequency prediction
,
breeding
Balancing selection Heterozygote advantage of sickle cell anaemia
-
:

↳ D= fp.gg + to fpyb and q ftbttz fpfb for allll " HMMM ↳ HBA / Hbs strong symptom be lethal defensive
=
← : not to , against malaria

(degree of freedom n # of alleles ) -

Fitness success of the organism at survive + reproduction storeadnrd Éed

squared test n l = :
→
-

- Chi -

↳ relative fitness w/ focus the

genotype that survives + reproduce Conto )
significant on

=[co-¥
if f-Mwe loner than 0.05 Cdiffoerce is
.

2 →
✗ u> the most successful : 1.0 relative fitness
Observed / Expected y
ex) sg 0.155 0.155/1.12 =
0.14
LECTURE 8 :
population & Goll pool SA
1.12 1.0 = 10
" AA
diverse understanding of defining
"
population → pop .
allows .
- .
0.983 0.983/1.12 = 0.88
disease evolution , Pest onto ' LECTURE
↳ interact
-

4 share genetic into ↳ tract spread of , 10 :

Genetic drift
riesistontl trucking inbreeding Msk
by chance (directionless
Genetic drift : change of sampling error
→
→ place + time viable offspring gene flow
-

,
.

→ micro evolution understanding ↳ sampled pop .

needs to be breed within the random sample → allelic feather
sore pool : shared alleles present within a
population changes
↳ existing genetic variations dependent of site of
→
gene pool → hence no prediction possible ,
laehsucllsirl generation changes (Bari 1955
→ dynamic is the diversity is chunky
↳ the
smaller it is more susceptible to charges
↳ does not select / favor alllll
, → let chance chase allele
just limit the size freq .

pronounced in small pop ( quicker response , greater effect)

,
↳ much
faster fixation /genetic drift or selection )
more
If less khcnceof mutation frequency
.

small ,

Iggy pop can buffer the effect

-
.

anew
. .

µµoa+
-
distribution also matters: gene fowl interaction)
q
in MATED .

Bottleneck 4 Founders
-
structure matters as well :
mating random o r not ,
isolation → may cause genetic structure
↳ event that drastically reduces pop sites d- genetic
.
of pop -7 diversity

µ
-
Mutations are inevitable sway # of individuals of an species find new habitat to settle
not gelatin
rarely beneficial sometimes
↳ usually no effect at all , .
lethal

pen natural fire occur → few survives ; randomly genotypes

|
germ line somatic
-

→ increase homozygosity ,
fixation of alleles , less adaptive capacity
↳ especially deleterious alleles ↳ reduced variation
-

gametes heritable ,
-

somatic cells . not heritable

could create new allele IN Cheetah found Africa from america ( 1001000 yrs ago]
↳ unless plants
-

↳ last ice age [ 12 over yrs ago] new extinction ( bottleneck

Spontaneous v5
,
induced
very Hall genetic density , 9 homozygosity (deleterious recessive allele
-
.

→ health
damage via chemicals & radiation fertility issue
: wthout reason . random mutation or due to /

↳ can
↳ harder to adapt to changing climate
occur anywhere , may have impact it may not have impact -

Chance of loosing alllll depends on diversity of initial sample pop

if happens expression if regulatory
.

M
↳
pop .
Can recover quickly but
the genetic diversity not
→ functional change or no
change → no
change
in expression → can cause it to be significantydnftecrt from parentpopulation
abundance meal be influenced
changes present
→
conservation ? how this can become speciation w/ adequate gents of
-

→ present us absent -

girl flow : introduction of new gene or reintroduction thrushtransfer of genetic

small ( more common ) larger L less common)
information from one pop → another
pop
-
point mutation -
inversion .
duplication ↳ disperse interbreed ,
. Viable C fertile) offspring
deletion insertion
-
,
, -
chromosomal fusion or
aneuploidy ^ >
substitution connected ) less
-
genome replication on → 4N) - migration [ movement contorted
frameshift
:
homogenic hybridization
↳
population Ntltopwlatim
-

ex ] down syndrome 21 connected :/

trisomy
ex) sicklecell anaemia ↳ porous ↳ genetically gunna pop differentiation
crop domestication barrier
closely related species ↳ porous barrier
or

teosinte to com (domestication) ( polyploid plant spelled

>
→ Viable but maybe
,

sterile
Reproduction ( asexual n . sexual Cinching )
-

impact of gene flow determined by the level of flow Chow much ) cm ) and
✓ ↳ the genetic Astana between them
Random mating Non -
random mutiny DP
big and/or Cm) is
= M( x-p ) either the difference is
→

/ tominbfapnotp
to
equal probability all
\
-

.
m =
great → significant deterrence is present
cruel
abortive disassoritve f-(A) migrant = ✗

↳ like alikes ↳ like dislikes f- (A) resident =p

i.
inbreeding lowered diversity increased diversity 4 reproductive
:
LECTURE 11 speciation of species due to
,
: : arise row
Increase in homozygosity heterozygosity isolation ; lineage split
d f tr
① pre mating time space behavior → Who "

µ
:
-

Human Olivella Bi plicata chromodoris wolves , ,

i traits : size by location

zebra : fur coat
② Pre zygotic :Sproving pollination ( external
-

, feet ) sympatric
: size
.

③ post zygotic : Enviable / infertile

LECTURE 9 : Nature selection "

selection how do we define species ? fundamental unityof evolution

"

three principles : variation , heredity ,

bras ① Biological :
interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated
ext Galapagos
variety of niche @ different Islands , different ② Phylogenic ancestor , shared distinctive characteristics
↳ different beaksize .
inherited , seeds
: common
resources same ecological niche
organism adopted particular
to
diverse beak size Cfixated) ③ Ecological sane set of ,
/
shape
:
→ settle ,

IN 1977 drought , lack offered → large beak selected cichlid fish

Us similarly Nice coat color ( black brown) selected differently @ sandstone → sympatric speciation cphenotupil , taxonomic diversity
da specialization → mate preference (disruptive selection)
,

and volcanic rock habitat → macro habitat adaptation

→ adaptne radiation :
rapid evolution by adapting to underutilized niches
↳ moth selection favors traits that increases
.

as well →
chance at reproduction
cichlid
-

incomplete reproduction isolation , crossed . Kidd

hybrid present: biological ✗
-

even very different characteristics cross ,

hybridize
resource usage overlaps among them Cdrffoent
-

Species)
Why define species ?
→ conservation ,
food , safety , medical , recreational
other species
do occur and continued in
-

hybrids post speciation -

on

from related species

adoptive introgression keeping beneficial variation
↳ :

4N sunflower fiovehytmty butterflies mimicry dogs

camouflage 1
-
-
, -

-
Humans homo sapiens adapted neanderthals
,

LECTURE 12 : Genomic studies

-
a lot of traits are quantitative [ polygenic ) multiple gene impacting
us some genes more important influential ↳ influential genes will be subject
,

to selection
-

complex networking of large networks of proteins of such genes

molecular genetics; specific gene segments of DNA
-

sequencing , analyte ,

-
Genomic entire genome sequencing
:

↳ diseases distribution of phenotype , eroutlmmy relationships

,

① extract ② " "

library ③ sequence ④ assemble data -1 annotate
"
SNP /
⑥ sample ② libraries ③ sequel ④ investigate genetics/genome ⑤variations
"

-
for big data ,
bioinformatics : quality scores → confidence censor rates
-
some genomes are Wye , need sufficient
samplesite for relationship investigation
Phylogenetics branching + similarity in
-

: DNA → no Kulu docks

↳ + phenotypes + fossil
↳
phytogeography landscape Genetics :
(fossil -1 DNA evidences )
UX ) Covid-19 spread (small RNA, asexual mutation high )
genome , ,

↳ fingerprint mutations transmission → more mutation

,

↳ cladogram :
analysis of phylogenetic reuntoorxhip of mutations

ex)
Austrian people Cmitognome → maternal small mutations
, , , haploid
1- Vocational into 1-
temporal Cmoheulw clock ,
mutation rate
)

Hr
phylogenetic analysis + phy to geographic
 LECTURE B :
what is life ? MODULE 3
-

maintaining orderliness of life in the world of entropy w/o

violating
LECTURE 15 :
when bodies fall apart
the 2nd law of thermodynamics though consuming " orderliness " food
'

curve increase ( double

=

another orderly life ( Temperature response as

temp Ntriple reaction rate
negativeentropy ] straying information
and in
aperiodic crystal CDNA) for
↳ ants hdlkhig faster as twp Inc only up to certain pt
stability regularity,
.

µÑµ|
-
Maxwell 's Demon : how to not violate 2nd law of thermodynamics optlhnl .

⇒ biologically demons :
protein channels creating gradient to create the → determines were * live → predictable
→ ↳ niche
not 100% I efficient ability to do work

equal distribution of F in the system → ability to do work will be lost

Entropy = with heterothermic = ectothermic rectal heat from
outside
organism wants to be in homeostasis ; maintain its state to survive w/o losingto the poikilothermic
of I
=
-

temp .

system .

- death - → temperature tolerance

↳ thermoregulation : protein denaturing issue creed to be @ optimal range
cannot afford that to maintain normal cellular function
temperature kinetic 2- of molecules →
e. :
average
raise lizard , lizard puts in active work to -
ectoderm use behavioral thermoregulation
→ instead of
letting system temp of
↳ shade seekers brurowws et
9 entropy panting
against the heat conduction
,
work
entropy , moves to a cooler system , → ,

homeotherm:c endothermic
by storing
=
life : about processing into ; homeostasis to keep it orderly f) use both internal regulation Ctx Sweating )
gem heat
..

- from inside
and behavioral conduction etc
level ↳ organism level ; moving to shade
:
↳ molecular :
protein channels
.

-
lower the metabolic rate (since it produces heat but at certain
only goal hits the basal here increase ut metabolic rate to reduce heat
LECTURE 14 :
Building boats
oriented
point it
and thermo
q regulate .

organ organ system → organism

↳ torpor to
energy 1- water while thermoregulatory Chonaeostas'D
mounts → organelles → cells → → save
-

d -

generalist specialists
at climate increase 9 of specialist
,

→ population → community → ecosystem "

survive + reproduce
"

pong
u, ↳ equator
•
Individual as a thermodynamic state homeostasis LECTURE 16 :
Relieving Into

reflection , scattered reflection etc -

constantly changing environment : abiotic / biotic & spatial / temporal

→ ividual
.
.

cues allow organisms to respond to variable environment

gym intake food radiation heat , hhtur

-

,
, -

cues for predator

-

sweat , pore dehydration excretion , respiration ↳ white sheet of eggs → throw the hell
away Cremoviy are )
*
, ,

↳ evaporation
conduction -
ale or signal is symbolic and not intrinsic ; conveys information
overall entropy 9 → needs to be detected by recognizable
↳ chemical [ transit ifnfo
TEMPERATURE signals and odours ) pheromone

µ
doesnt
meaning but
w sane
BREATHING ex ) note heap hurt sane pheromone
metabolism hldtl matter =
conserved live another
myyzn close to one
i. homeostasis maintained ↳ BUG"
FEEDING until reproduction 6
sensory modalities chemical [ pheromone) olfaction
u> receptor -1 ligand
-
chemical -

magnetic
Mudtebolic Rate → heat output cweaoued though calorimetry) ekltrio'M mechanical [ conduction underwater
Electricity
-

cloth 06 -1 602 →
602 -1
61120 02 -
light sound ↳ ex) shark
⇒ Energy heat (fire of life)
-
-1
r
↳ direct : mean the heat ⇒ modern day : indie a-
calorimetry use gas visual modalities flight) Magnetic fled !
Mignetro receptor
baseline existence energy cost
nugatory (magnetic cult
:
↳ bird
-

↳ larger eye, better vision

-

activity energy cost for digesting muhfiry temp by onvironnnt muscle work ,
,
: can You see the spiderweb sound :
frequency
BMR ( Basal Metabolic Rate) Homeostatic endotherm @ thermo neutral zone (zone zoo ¢µz )
-
-

↳ doing nothing CX eating moving inactve reproducing , adult

.

,
,
mechanical : vibration ↳ Bat Ultra 8MW to locomotion
SMR ( standard Metabolic Rate ) Ectoderm @ known temp navigate itself
↳spiders feel vibration
-

on web
-
.

condition to locate prey ↳ Whack as well

U> same
→ sound >20kHz can disrupt then
human to Resting Metabolic Rate 1nA moving digesting , @ ttomoreutwe zone ,
-

-
field metabolic rate ( Baer step ✗ 2ns ) ( RMR ✗ C. 5) -

signal V1 . awl
,

↳ doing ever
deny action using heart water
tracking Ectoderm
↳ ex) signal for mating light d- fireflies
↳ ex ) haha be uses face odor to take a ace of predator 's presence
body time homeotherm ice
heterothermic
-

endothermic signal requires evolutionary purpose is cue incidental source of into

✓ though its not selected for it

↳ em
ant pheromone → are to butterflies
→ metabolic
rate
& → we for spiders §predator * signals need to be
fluctuates
signa, for one any detected tobe eclectic
ambient tap -
9
distinguish Different
.

up disrupted by
signaling strategy
-

M= awb
b = ? I 73 ? ✗ =
3/4 waves on water surface $MkNm&^ ""
u> bright color → toxicity by aquatic unto boatmen
9
body weight A- :
SA =
✗
3 : ✗
2 =
predicted % .
-

signaling efficacy
↳ sane info different
↳ not due to heat lost as it was measured in thermoneutral zone ,
impact
" "
evolution favor signal efficacy (distinctiveness ) 1- greater reliever
Metabolic neb → work

bodynug
life
feeding ontogeny / history may favor abilities few cues but not mtte call unless it disadvantageous
to

§
-

g
- assimilation (digestion) -

growth development from esg to source ofthe cue ) .

-
growth → Juvenile → adult
99
maintenance innate : born with it ; know how to reacton its first encounter
metamorphosis
-

development ( maturation ,
hop" 'd / diploid modified result of experiences
-

learned :
. reproduction
size ,
clutch size , logevlety
Growth rates

E k ¥4 w
'
 LECTURE 17 :
Declaring Info
-

eavesdropping [ unintended reliever ) extra energy especially grains amulet

multiple female :
polygyny
f
↳ cost of 7- 6 3.8 / 3-8
signaling (
exploitation) +
physiological costs present
ex)
a move +
B male
+
female :
polyandry
begging calls attracts predator / parasitic flies detecting courtship calls
3.7 3.0 bit tsttto
↳ social alarming pheromones cant spider) ✗
.

ant -

butterfly mutual ares → are for

a man +
B mate +
multiple female i polygynandry
spider c.predator
Cob our are] A mall 1-
female
monogamy
:

Camouflaging and
mimicry 5.0 5.0
↳ retracts livelihood of being detected / recognized
parental core of reproduction
definitely
-

work → egg pattern to soil much harder to find

↳ nesting
yes camo flage → then hide
away to makeit even harder to notice I kwyamt pouch lmatenal) sea horse , mail
Turkey Cpaternal)
⑤
-
,

protection :
overmatching carrying offspring sitting
, ,
on
top of them
no count age ✗ → parent stay back for extra protection
↳ foraging
,

feed them teach ten

-
: or over a year
for
eggs provisioning :
wasp fill up mud W
rest weight specific spiders
-

Masquerade :
pretend it is imintoetiy object cleaves stem
↳
,

↳ motion : shall wer wird blow to make it even more

seemingly Costly →
may compromise tune reproduction
benign mimic toxic species : mom die to

Jett
Batesian mimic :
conflicted '

FIÑes
agressive mimic : mimic to hurt not hide : mother eithe leave
because it
lplaltract then or get pass by their security
, swim
'

Mñtleian mimic two separate species develop similar traits features 1

: ,
of offspring
distastefulness , signal etc
↳ gain feed herself
' '
' ' weight and

arms race = coevolution →

puts
of species one
charge the other reap - coal
to her offspring
change over evolutionary time
-ÉÉ cooperative parenting of community requires signaling communication
-
+

prey predator : evolve to favor faster hunter -

predator ↳ parents reproductive success 9

✓
and faster runner
prey
-

①
cooperate care of 90mg
-5 better detection

)→
camouflage
fast runner
✓ ② sterile caste Eusocial G.e. bees)
mimicry
active defense - de
activate -

③ Overlapping generator
the defense

ex> Bat use sonar → moth have receptors to detect the sonar
+ foster
flying
better detect egg or abandon the rest
cuckoo :
parasite eggs →

µÑ
¥
↳ high mimicry → higher rejection rate
g.
↳ find new innocent host

autrutian Cuckoo :
super similar eggs
↳ auses host to be able to detect the hatched Young chick by right
→ predicted to mimic chick as well

LECTURE 18 :
Transferring Info
Genotype -1 Environment → phenotype t asexual much energyefficient
twice at foster but why
↳
delivery of information reproduction =
sexual ?
-
asexual species common in agriculture because they are homogenous
↳ sexual allow better adaptation to
varying environment
gametes are dimorphic because communicator; avoid binding to its ounce ,
-
:

↳ erswiy dreadful fertilization

External is .
Internal fertilization i
can be exploited as are
↳ signals needed to be present (location , receptivity )
→ facultative parthenogenesis or hermaphroditism doesn't require such
difficulty .

sexual selection
competition to get reproductive opportunity
-

↳ mate choice
competition → both signalling
or mace -

mace
L a
female choice fight between man
↳ colors, beauty etc .

" "

Darrin 's predictive on the organ of sense pheromone by receptors .

↳ less pheromone ↳
longer antennal

Reproductive paradox [ conflict of interest

↳ female wants to maximize reproductive success by mating a lot

↳ male wanna ensure /

prevent polyandry to
protect reproductive success

prevention of polyandry
↳ physical i stick themselves , mate guard , block the organ
up intently females
ignat :
destroy signaling pheromone areas or Edam late
substance that kill lower female receptivity