HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Receiving sensory input
2. Integrating information
3. Controlling muscles and glands
4. Maintaining homeostasis
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
-consists of the brain and spinal cord.
-Motor division
-conducts action potentials from
the CNS to effector organs
-Motor neurons
-The neurons that transmit action
potentials from the CNS
toward the periphery
-The motor division can be further
subdivided based on the type of effector
being innervated.
-Somatic nervous system
-transmits action potentials from
the CNS to skeletal
muscles
-Autonomic nervous system
-transmits action potentials from
the CNS to cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle, and
glands
-sympathetic and
parasympathetic
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
-consists of all the nervous tissue
outside the CNS, including nerves and
ganglia.
-communication link between the CNS
and the various parts of the body.
-carries information about the different
tissues of the body to the CNS and
delivers commands from the CNS to
other body tissues that alter body
activities
-Sensory division
-conducts action potentials from
sensory receptors to the
CNS
-Sensory neurons
-neurons that transmit action
potentials from the
periphery to the CNS
-Enteric nervous system
-has sensory and motor neurons
within the digestive tract.
-can function without input from
the CNS or other parts of
the PNS
*The sensory division of the peripheral nervous
system (PNS; green) detects stimuli and
conducts action potentials to the central
nervous system (CNS). The CNS interprets
incoming action potentials and initiates action
potentials that are conducted through the
motor division (purple) to produce a response.
The motor division is divided into the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system.
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
NEURONS
-receive stimuli, conduct action
potentials, and transmit signals to other
neurons or effector organs.
Three parts of a neuron:
Cell body
-contains a single nucleus
Dendrites
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-receive information from other -have a single process
neurons or from sensory extending from the
receptors and cell body
transmit the
-divides into two
processes
information toward the neuron -one extends to the
cell body periphery and one
extends to the CNS
Axon
-single long cell process
extending from the neuron
cell body
-Axon hillock
-where the axon leaves
the neuron cell
body
-Axons in sensory neurons
conduct action potentials
toward CNS
-Axons in motor neurons conduct
action potentials away
from the CNS
-Collateral axons
-An axon may remain
unbranched or may
branch to form this
Types of Neurons
-neurons vary in function and in
structure
GLIAL CELLS OR NEUROGLIA
-in function:
-supportive cells of the CNS and PNS
-sensory neurons send
information from -enhance neuron function and maintain
body to CNS normal conditions within nervous tissue

-motor neurons send -more numerous than neurons

information from -in the CNS, there are 4 types of glial
CNS to body cells and 1 in PNS
-in structure: -Astrocytes
Multipolar neuron -major supporting cells in the
-have many dendrites and CNS
a single axon -stimulate or inhibit the signaling
Bipolar neurons activity of nearby neurons.

-have two processes (1 -participate with the blood vessel

dendrite and axon) endothelium to form a
permeability barrier,
Pseudo-unipolar neurons called the blood-brain barrier
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-Ependymal cells -in CNS, it is the cortex and the clusters
located deeper within the brain are
-line the fluid-filled cavities
called nuclei
(ventricles and canals)
within the CNS. -in PNS, a cluster of neuron cell bodies
or ganglion
-White matter
-Microglia
-bundles of parallel axons with their
-immune cells of the CNS
myelin sheaths, which are whitish in
-protect the brain by removing bacteria color.
and cell debris
-in CNS, it forms nerve tracks or
-Oligodendrocytes conduction pathways which propagate
action potentials from one area of the
-provide an insulating material that
CNS to another.
surrounds axons in CNS
-in PNS, consists of bundles of axons
-Schwann Cells
and associated connective tissue that
-provide insulating material around form nerves.
axons in PNS
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND NEURAL
PATHWAYS
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

MYELIN SHEATHS
-specialized layers that wrap around the
axons of some neurons
-formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS
and Schwann cells in the PNS
-Myelinated axons
-with myelin sheaths
-nodes of Ranvier
-gaps in the myelin sheath
-where ion movement occurs
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE
-Nervous tissue varies in color due to the
location and arrangement of the parts of
neurons and glial cells.
-Exists as gray matter and white matter
-Gray matter
-groups of neuron cell bodies and their
dendrites, where there is very little
myelin
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES

-The resting membrane potential is set by the

activity of the leak channels. On stimulation,
chemically gated channels are opened and
initiate local potentials. If sufficiently strong, the
local potentials activate voltage-gated channels
to an action potential

-Axon potentials in unmyelinated axons are

conducted slowly.
-continuous conduction

-Axon potentials in myelinated axons are

conducted faster.
-stimulating an axon potential at the
node of Ranvier
-saltatory conduction

REFLEXES

-Action potential conduction in a myelinated -involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus

fiber is like a child skipping across the floor, applied to the periphery and transmitted to the
whereas in an unmyelinated axon it is like a CNS.
child walking heel to toe across the floor. -Reflex arc
THE SYNAPSE -neuronal pathway by which a reflex
-the axon of one neuron interacts with another occurs
neuron or with cells of an effector organ, such -basic functional unit of the nervous
as a muscle or gland system
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
SPINAL CORD
-extends from the foramen magnum at the
base of the skull to the second lumbar vertebra
-Spinal nerves
-communicate between the spinal cord
and body
-Cauda equina
NEURONAL PATHWAYS
-inferior end of the spinal cord
-Converging and Diverging pathways
-resemble a horse’s tail
-Converging pathway
-two or more neurons synapse with the
same postsynaptic neuron
-allows information transmitted in more
than one neuronal pathway to converge
into a single pathway
-Diverging pathway
-the axon from one neuron divides and
synapses with more than one other
postsynaptic neuron
-allows information transmitted in one
neuronal pathway to diverge into two or
more pathways

-Summation
-a process when many presynaptic
action potentials are needed in
the target cell
-allows integration of multiple
subthreshold local potentials
-Spatial summation
-local potentials originate from different
locations on the postsynaptic neuron
-Temporal summation
-local potentials overlap in time
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES

SPINAL NERVES
SPINAL CORD REFLEXES -arise along the spinal cord from the union of
-Knee-jerk reflex the dorsal roots and ventral roots

-The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex
-knee jerk reflec is an example of stretch
reflex
-Withdrawal reflex
-remove a limb or another body part
from a painful stimulus
-Spinal nerves are categorized by the region of
the vertebral column from which they emerge
—cervical (C), thoracic (T), lumbar (L), sacral
(S), and coccygeal (Co).
-Spinal nerves are organized into three major
plexuses (cervical, brachial, and lumbosacral
plexus)
-Cervical plexus
-originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
-branches of the muscle attached to
hyoid bone, as well as the skin of the
neck and posterior portion of the head
-phrenic nerve
-innervates the diaphragm
-Brachial plexus
-originates from spinal nerves C5 to T1.
-five major nerves emerge from the
brachial plexus to supply the upper limb
and shoulder
-Axillary nerve
-innervates two shoulder muscles
and the skin over part of the
shoulder
-Radial nerve
-innervates all the muscles in the
posterior arm and forearm
as well as the skin over the
posterior surface of the arm,
forearm, and hand.
-Musculocutaneous nerve
-innervates the anterior muscles
of the arm and the skin
over the radial surface of the
forearm
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-Ulnar nerve
-innervates two anterior forearm
muscles and most of the
intrinsic hand muscles.
-funny bone

BRAIN
-Median nerve
-major regions of the brain are the brainstem,
-innervates most of the anterior
the cerebellum, the diencephalon, and the
forearm muscles and
cerebrum
some of the intrinsic hand muscles
-Lumbosacral plexus
-originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
-Four major nerves exit the lumbosacral
plexus to supply the lower limb
-Obturator nerve
-innervates the muscles of the
medial thigh and the skin
over the same region.
-Femoral nerve BRAINSTEM

-innervates the anterior thigh -connects the spinal cord to the remainder of
muscles and the skin over the brain
the anterior thigh and medial -involved in vital body functions, such as the
side of the leg. control of heart rate, blood pressure, and
-Tibial nerve breathing

-innervates the posterior thigh -consists of medulla oblongata, pons, and

muscles, the anterior and midbrain
posterior leg -Medulla oblongata
muscles, and most of the
intrinsic foot muscles. -most inferior portion of the brainstem

-Common fibular nerve -convey signals to and from other

-innervates the muscles of the
lateral thigh and leg and
some intrinsic foot muscles
-Sciatic nerve
-The tibial and common fibular
nerves are bound together
within a connective tissue sheath
and together
regions of the brain
-specific functions, such as regulation of
heart rate and blood vessel diameter,
breathing, swallowing, vomiting,
coughing, sneezing, balance, and
coordination
-Pons
-superior to the medulla oblongata
-relay information between the cerebrum
and the cerebellum
-Midbrain
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-superior to pons -plays a central role in the control of
body temperature, hunger, and thirst
-smallest region of the brainstem
-Infundibulum extends from the floor of
-Colliculi
the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland.
-dorsal part of the midbrain
-Mammillary bodies form externally
consists of four mounds
visible swellings on the posterior portion
called colliculi
of the hypothalamus.
-Substantia nigra
CEREBRUM
-black nuclear mass
-largest part of the braid
-Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into
-part of the basal nuclei which is lobes.
involved in regulating body movements
-Frontal lobe
-Reticular formation
-important in the control of voluntary
-scattered group of nuclei in the motor functions, motivation, aggression,
brainstem mood, and olfactory (smell) reception.
-involved in regulating cyclical motor -Parietal lobe
functions, such as respiration, walking,
-principal center for receiving and
and chewing
consciously perceiving most sensory
-major component of the reticular information, such as touch, pain,
activating system, which plays an temperature, and balance.
important role in arousing and
-Occipital lobe
maintaining consciousness and in
regulating the sleep-wake cycle. -receiving and perceiving visual input
and is not distinctly separate from the
CEREBELLUM
other lobes.
-little brain
-Temporal lobe
-attached to the brainstem by several large
-involved in olfactory (smell) and
connections called cerebellar peduncles
auditory (hearing) sensations and plays
DIENCEPHALON an important role in memory
-part of the brain between the brainstem and -Lateral fissure
the cerebrum
-separates temporal lobe from the rest
-thalamus, the epithalamus, and the of cerebrum and deep within the fissure
hypothalamus is the insula, often referred to as the 5th
lobe.
-Thalamus
-largest part of the diencephalon
-Epithalamus
-small area superior and posterior to the
thalamus
-consists of a few small nuclei, which
are involved in the emotional and
visceral response to odors, and the
pineal gland.
-Hypothalamus
-most inferior part of the diencephalon
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
head, limbs, tongue, and eyes and
communicating through facial expressions and
speech.
MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL
CORTEX
-The primary motor cortex is located in the
posterior portion of the frontal lobe, directly
anterior to the central sulcus.
-The premotor area of the frontal lobe is
where motor functions are organized before
they are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex.
SENSORY FUNCTIONS -The motivation and foresight to plan and
ASCENDING TRACTS initiate movements occur in the anterior portion
of the frontal lobes, called the pre-frontal area.
DESCENDING TRACTS

SENSORY AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL
CORTEX
SOMATIC MOTOR FUNCTIONS
-responsible for maintaining the body’s posture
and balance, as well as moving the trunk,
BASAL NUCLEI
-group of functionally related nuclei
-Two primary nuclei are the corpus striatum
located deep within the cerebrum, and the
substantia nigra, a group of darkly pigmented
cells in the midbrain
-important in planning, organizing, and
coordinating motor movements and posture.
-basal nuclei disorders include Parkinson
disease, Huntington disease, and cerebral
palsy, wherein they have a specific feature of
“resting tremor” or slight shaking of hands.
CEREBELLUM
-attached by cerebellar peduncles to the
brainstem
-involved in maintaining balance and muscle
tone and in coordinating fine motor movement.
-Comparator
-major function of the cerebellum
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-sensing device that compares the data
from the motor cortex and peripheral
structures
-Proprioceptive Neurons
-innervate joints, tendons, and muscles
and provide information about the
position of body parts.
OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE RIGHT
AND LEFT HEMISPHERES
-The right cerebral hemisphere receives
sensory input from and controls muscular
activity in the left half of the body.
-The left cerebral hemisphere receives input
from and controls muscles in the right half of
the body.
-Commissures
-Sensory information received by one
hemisphere is shared with the other
through connections between the two
hemispheres
-Corpus callosum
-largest of these commissures
-Left hemisphere is the more analytical
hemisphere, emphasizing such skills as
mathematics and speech, whereas the right
hemisphere is more involved in functions such
as three-dimensional or spatial perception and
musical ability
SPEECH
-The speech area is in the left cerebral cortex
-Two major cortical areas are involved in
speech:
-The sensory speech area (Wernicke
area), located in the parietal lobe,
functions in understanding and
formulating coherent speech.
-The motor speech area (Broca area),
located in the frontal lobe, controls the
movement necessary for speech.
-Aphasia
-absent or defective speech or language
comprehension
-due to damage to these parts of the
brain
-due to stroke
BRAIN WAVES AND CONSCIOUSNESS
-Electrodes placed on a person’s scalp and
attached to a recording device can record the
brain’s electrical activity, producing an
electroencephalogram.
-Alpha waves
-awake, resting state with eyes closed
-Beta waves
-higher frequency than alpha waves and
occur during intense mental activity
-Delta waves
-deep sleep, in infants, and in patients
with severe brain disorders.
-Theta waves
-usually observed in children, but they
can also occur in adults who are
experiencing frustration or who have
certain brain disorders.
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-Subdural hematoma
-Damage to the veins crossing between
the cerebral cortex and the dural venous
sinuses can cause bleeding into the
subdural space
-Arachnoid mater
-second meningeal membrane that is
very thin and wispy
-Pia mater
-very tightly bound to the surface of the
brain and spinal cord
MEMORY
-Working memory
-few seconds to few minutes; mostly in
the frontal cortex
-Short-term memory
-few minutes to few days
-Long-term memory
-can last for a few minutes or
permanently by consolidation
-Declarative memory
retention of facts, such as names, dates,
and places, as well as related emotional
undertones
-Procedural memory
involves the development of motor skills,
such as riding a bicycle
-Memory engrams
involved in the long-term retention of a
given piece of information, a thought, or
an idea
VENTRICLES
LIMBIC SYSTEM
-CNS contains these fluid-filled cavities
-consists of olfactory cortex and certain deep
cortical regions and nuclei of the cerebrum and -Lateral ventricle
diencephalon
-Each cerebral hemisphere contains this
MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND relatively large cavity
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
-Third ventricle
MENINGES
-smaller, midline cavity located in the
-surround and protect the brain and spinal cord center of the diencephalon between the
two halves of the thalamus and
-Dura mater
connected by foramina (holes) to the
-most superficial and thickest of the lateral ventricles.
meninges
HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-Fourth ventricle
-located at the base of the cerebellum -Blockage of the openings in the fourth
and connected to the third ventricle by a ventricle or the cerebral aqueduct can cause
narrow canal, called the cerebral CSF to accumulate in the ventricles, a
aqueduct. condition known as hydrocephalus.

CRANIAL NERVES
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
-bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a
protective cushion around the CNS.
-Choroid plexuses
-produce CSF
-Arachnoid granulations
-masses of arachnoid tissues that
penetrate the superior sagittal sinus, a
dural venous sinus in the longitudinal
fissure, and CSF passes from the
subarachnoid space into the blood
through these granulations

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

-carry action potentials from the CNS to the
periphery
-in the autonomic nervous system, two neurons
in series extend from the CNS to the effector
organs.
-preganglionic neuron and
postganglionic neuron
-composed of sympathetic and
parasympathetic division

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HAPP CHAPTER 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES