1|Criminology as Integration of various disciplines

AS INTEGRATION OF VARIOUS DISCPLINES

Submitted to- Prof. Nehmat Submitted by- Navjot Kaur Sidhu

Class- B.com. LL.B. (Hons)

Roll no.- 173/17

Section-D

Semester -10th
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Acknowledgement
First of all I am thankful to the almighty who has given me the beautiful gift of education.
Secondly, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to our Criminology teacher “Ms. Nehmat ” for being
such a great teacher and guide. I am thankful to her for giving me the opportunity to work on this
project and indulge into good research which has increased my overall understanding of the
subject Criminology. I really appreciate the way she has given us the liberty to do our projects
and her lectures have been a great help in preparing the project report.

I am thankful to my parents for everything. I am grateful for the support and guidance extended
by my friends when required. Without them I would have not been able to complete and submit
this project on time.

Navjot Kaur Sidhu 173/17

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Table of Content
S.no. Particulars Page no.
1. Introduction 4
2. Crime and Criminology 4-5
3. Contribution of various disciplines to Criminology 6-18
4. Criminology: an interdisciplinary approach 19-20
5. Bibliography 21
6.
7.
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Introduction
Humans have dark side that loves crime and violence. We all may deny it but the contrary is true.
And it applies regardless of our age, caste, social status, region, religion or education. The
television, movies, sports and many happenings reported in news papers and magazines are
indicative of our obsession with the fact and fiction of crime and violence. Modern culture is in
fact can be referred to as the most violent culture in history in the number of crimes and in the
nature brutality.

Crime somehow intrigues people. It can attract or repel but it does happen. It can amuse us and
also frighten us. It can generate anger when it affects near or dear ones in our community. The
crime arouses so much of interest or passion, yet its understanding as to why it occurs and what
we can do about it has often remained a problem. Public officials, politicians, experts and
consultants and anyone who matters often offer simple and incomplete discourses on the events
and method of solution for eradicating crime. So to understand what is crime and its causation
there is a distinct filed called Criminology which we shall be discussing in this project report.
We will discuss the contribution of multiple fields like sociology, anthropology. Economics,
Geography, Psychology and psychiatry and how their contributions have helped in better
explanation of the crime.1

Crime and Criminology

Criminology maybe defined as “the scientific study of the causation, correction, and prevention
of crime”. Criminology is the social science approach to the study of crime as an individual and
social phenomenon. Although contemporary definitions vary in the exact words used, there is
considerable consensus that criminology involves the application of the scientific method‖ to the
study of variation in criminal law, the causes of crime, and reactions to crime

Edwin Sutherland- Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social

phenomenon. It includes within its scope the processes of making laws, breaking laws
and reacting towards the breaking of law. (From the above definition it is apparent that

1 Psychiatrist and the science of criminology: Sociological, psychological and psychiatric analysis of the dark side

available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2899996/ retrieved on 7 June 2022 4:45 pm

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criminology is a combination of how the society defines and deals with crime within a social
and legal context).

Criminology is an inter-disciplinary field of study, involving scholars and practitioners

representing a wide range of behavioral and social sciences as well as numerous natural sciences.
Sociologists played a major role in defining and developing the field of study and criminology
emerged as an academic discipline housed in sociology programs. However, with the
establishment of schools of criminology and the proliferation of academic departments and
programs concentrating specifically on crime and justice in the last half of the 20 century, the
criminology emerged as a distinct professional field with a broad, interdisciplinary focus and a
shared commitment to generating knowledge through systematic research.

Criminology basically is specified into three further branches. These are Sociology which deals
with the social aspect of the crimes, criminal etiology which deals with the causation of crimes
and penology which deals with the mechanism of prevention of crimes. The objective of
criminology is to provide a codified, organised and structural subject that will try to find the
cause of crimes and will ultimately provide ways and remedies on how the crimes can be
reduced or eradicated.

Criminology regarded as art or social science because unlike science it does not work on coded
or universally defined principles. There is not any proper theory which can be given regarding
criminology.In essence, criminologists examine every conceivable aspect of deviant behavior.
That includes the impacts of crime on individual victims and their families, society at large, and
even criminals themselves. Some of the specific areas that criminology covers include:

 Frequency of crimes
 Location of crimes
 Causes of crimes
 Types of crimes
 Social and individual consequences of crimes
 Social reactions to crime
 Individual reactions to crime
 Governmental reactions to crime

Criminologists conduct research and analyze data to help understand, deter, and prevent crime.
They also develop theories based on the research they conduct to help translate data into action.
Some criminologists also evaluate, develop, and implement criminal justice policies and
procedures.2

2
https://www.thebalancecareers.com/what-is-criminology-974589 retrieved on 5 june 2022 at 5: 40 pm
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Contribution of Various disciplines to

Criminology
 Criminology and sociology

A legal definition of crime can be simple: crime is a violation of the law. However, the definition
of crime within sociology isn’t quite as simple. There are many different ways to define crime,
many different theories about the origins of criminal activity, and just as many sociological
theories of crime. Some of the most commonly defined types of crime in sociology include:

 Violent crime – A crime in which a person is harmed or or threatened. Violent crimes

include murder, assault, rape, sexual assault, robbery, kidnapping, and harassment.
 Property crime – Property crime involves criminal activity that does not do bodily harm
to a person, but rather focuses on private property. This type of crime involves burglary,
theft, arson, defacement of property, motor vehicle theft, and more.
 White-collar crime – White-collar crime is the name for acts of fraud committed by
businessmen. Violent behavior is typically not associated with white-collar crime. Rather,
these types of crimes are committed to gain or avoid losing money or property. Some
examples of white-collar crimes include money laundering, corporate fraud, mortgage
fraud, Ponzi schemes, and embezzlement among others.
 Organized crime – Organized crime refers to criminal activity committed by an
organized group of individuals at a local, regional, national, or international level. Some
groups commonly associated with organized crime include the mafia, terrorist groups,
and mobsters. Drug trafficking, human trafficking, money laundering, and counterfeiting
are among some of the most prevalent illegal activities committed under the banner of
organized crime.
 Consensual or victimless crime – Consensual crime refers to crimes that do not directly
harm other individuals or property. Rather, individuals choose to participate in risky
behaviors that may be considered against the law. This includes indulging in drug use,
prostitution, or obscenity.

Outside of these five types of crime in sociology, you can find a wealth of different ideas.3There
are many different sociological theories. One key idea that the sociological theories have in
common, though, is the idea that criminal behavior is not innate to humans and circumstances

3
https://www.nu.edu/resources/sociological-theories-of-crime/ retrieved on 7 june 2022 at 12:34 am
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affect how people act. That is, people aren't born criminals; it is the environment in which they
live that influences how they will turn out4

The largest number of criminological theories have been developed through sociological inquiry.
These theories have generally asserted that criminal behaviour is a normal response of
biologically and psychologically normal individuals to particular kinds of social circumstances.
Some of the sociological theories of criminology are defined below:

1) Structural functionalism: Social scientist Emile Durkheim is responsible for the

sociological theory of structural functionalism. Essentially, this theory hinges on the
belief that the survival of society is dependent upon institutional practices. This theory
largely fell out of favor during the 1960s mainly because the theory fails to recognize the
influence of the individual on the society in which they live. It talks about how deviance
plays an important role to unite different types of populations together. It also helps to
distinguish between what kind of behavior is acceptable what is not. It helps in affirming
certain norms of the society as it draws lines between the right and the wrong.
2) Social strain theory: Robert K. Merton developed the concept of social strain
typology. This concept is based upon the idea that societal structures can effectively
pressure individuals into the commission of a crime. The theory is based upon the belief
that when cultural goals of society (i.e. the desire to obtain wealth) are out of line with
the opportunities to achieve them, crime will occur.
3) Social learning theory: It is a prevalent sociological theory in criminology which
posits that crime is learned and more likely to occur when individuals associate with
people who are criminally involved. Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers coined this
theory and it has withstood analysis through empirical conclusions made over time. The
belief that the actions and criminal behaviors of the community influence criminal
activity is an element of social learning theory.
4) Conflict theory: Social conflict theory stands in stark opposition to the previous
theory of structural functionalism. Instead of focusing on the institution's importance on
society, conflict theory focuses on the battle between institutions and individuals.
Originally devised by Karl Marx, Max Weber, and George Simmel, the theory hinges on
the dynamic between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Today, few modern sociologists
call themselves conflict theorists. The theory is based on the idea that inequalities cause
class warfare, which is the root of crime. sociological theory that explains that deviant
behavior takes place because people face economical, social, and political inequalities.
As a result, these people protest in their own ways against their so-called “oppressors”.
Occupy Wall Street Movement is one of the examples under the conflict theory. In this
movement, people who belonged to the lower strata of the economic hierarchy started
4
https://study.com/academy/lesson/sociological-theories-of-crime-overview-features.html
8|Criminology as Integration of various disciplines

protesting against the “rich” or “wealthy” by coming up with more communal ways to
live in Zucotti Park. Criminology is the study of crime as a social phenomena. Marxist
criminology is a theory that attempts to explain crime through the prism of
Marxism. Marxist criminology says during the struggle for resources in capitalism,
crime emerges as those on the bottom contend for social, political, and economic
equality. Marx contends that capitalism as a mode of production is the only system that
separates the product (wealth and resources) from the natural distribution of that product.
In all other societies, the product is generated to migrate to the needy and not be hoarded
by those on top. In a capitalist society, those on the top pay as little as possible to their
workers thus choking the flow of products to the needy. It's this unmet need, created by
capitalists, that drives those at the bottom to resort to crime.5

5) Labeling theory: The concept of labeling theory in criminology posits that

stigmatizing stereotypes applied to various groups in society causes changes in behavior
once labeled. Howard Becker from 1963 is the father of labeling theory. The theory
consists of both formal and informal labeling in society. 6 This theory explains that
people become deviant or defiant because society puts that label on them. In a way, they
“adapt” to all those labels put on them and try to behave in exactly the way others expect
them to behave. This attitude is because of social stigma, thus harming the community
being targeted. Another incident took place in an American high school, where a group of
high schoolers were labeled as “shooters” and very soon, they became part of what is
called the “Columbia High School Massacre.”7
 Criminology and Psychology
It is important to recognize that there are many different explanations as to why individuals
commit crime. One of the main explanations is based on psychological theories, which focus on
the association among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior.

When examining psychological theories of crime, one must be cognizant of the three major
theories. The first is psychodynamic theory, which is centered on the notion that an individual’s
early childhood experience influences his or her likelihood for committing future crimes. The
second is behavioral theory. Behavioral theorists have expanded the work of Gabriel Tarde
through behavior modeling and social learning. The third is cognitive theory, the major premise
of which suggests that an individual’s perception and how it is manifested (Jacoby, 2004) affect

5
https://study.com/academy/lesson/marxist-criminology-definition-theory-examples.html retrieved on 7 June
2022 at 2:27 am
6
Sociological theories of crime available at https://study.com/learn/lesson/sociological-theories-crime-overview-
features.html retrieved on 7 June 2022 at 12: 29 am
7
Sociological Theories of Crime available at https://thelawexpress.com/sociological-theories-of-crime retrieved on
7 june 2022 at 12:19 am
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his or her potential to commit crime. In other words, behavioral theory focuses on how an
individual’s perception of the world influences his or her behavior.

 Psychodynamic Theory

Proponents of psychodynamic theory suggest that an individual’s personality is controlled by

unconscious mental processes that are grounded in early childhood. This theory was originated
by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), the founder of
psychoanalysis. Imperative to this theory are the three
elements or structures that make up the human
personality:

1. the id
2. the ego
3. the superego.

One can think of the id is as the primitive part of a

person’s mental makeup that is present at birth. Freud
(1933) believed the id represents the unconscious
biological drives for food, sex, and other necessities over the life span. Most important is the idea
that the id is concerned with instant pleasure or gratification while disregarding concern for
others. This is known as the pleasure principle, and it is often paramount when discussing
criminal behavior.

The second element of the human personality is the ego, which is thought to develop early in a
person’s life. For example, when children learn that their wishes cannot be gratified
instantaneously, they often throw a tantrum. Freud (1933) suggested that the ego compensates
for the demands of the id by guiding an individual’s actions or behaviors to keep him or her
within the boundaries of society. The ego is guided by the reality principle.

The third element of personality, the superego, develops as a person incorporates the moral
standards and values of the community; parents; and significant others, such as friends and
clergy members. The focus of the superego is morality. The superego serves to pass judgment on
the behavior and actions of individuals (Freud, 1933).

The ego mediates between the id’s desire for instant gratification and the strict morality of the
superego. One can assume that young adults as well as adults understand right from wrong.
However, when a crime is committed, advocates of psychodynamic theory would suggest that an
individual committed a crime because he or she has an underdeveloped superego.
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In sum, psychodynamic theory suggests that criminal offenders are frustrated and aggravated.
They are constantly drawn to past events that occurred in their early childhood. Because of a
negligent, unhappy, or miserable childhood, which is most often characterized by a lack of love
and/or nurturing, a criminal offender has a weak (or absent) ego.8

 Behavioral Theory

This theory revolves around the idea that human behavior develops through experience.
Specifically, behavioral theory focuses on the idea that people develop their behavior based on
the reaction their behavior gets from those around them. This is a form of conditioning, where
behavior is learned and reinforced by rewards or punishment.

So, if a person is in the company of those who condone and even reward criminal behavior –
especially a figure of authority – then they will continue to engage in that behavior. For example,
social learning theorist Albert Bandura maintains individuals are not born with an innate ability
to act violently. He instead suggests people learn violent behavior through observing
others. Typically, this comes from three sources: family, environmental experiences and the
mass media.

 Cognitive Theory 

Cognitive theory focuses on how people perceive the world and how this perception governs
their actions, thoughts and emotions. Most cognitive theorists break down the process into three
levels of what is called “moral development.”

 Pre-conventional level. This involves children and how they learn the external
consequences of their actions.
 Conventional level. This involves teens and young adults, who begin to base behavior on
society’s views and expectations.
 Post-conventional level. In those over the age of 20, the focus is more on judging the
moral worth of societal values and rules and how they relate to values of liberty, human
welfare and human rights

 In the area of crime, cognitive theorists argue that criminals do not develop moral judgment 
beyond a pre-conventional level. 9

8
https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/theories/psychological-theories-of-
crime/#google_vignette retrieved on 7 June 2022 at 1:25 am
9
What are the three major psychological theories of crime? Available at https://online.pointpark.edu/criminal-
justice/psychological-theories-of-crime / retrieved on 7 June 2022 at 2:06 am
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 Criminology and Anthropology

Criminal anthropology is a branch of sociology, and its purpose1 is to investigate crime

scientifically: to study its origin and causes, and to determine, if possible, what proportion of
responsibility belongs to society and what to the criminal. The remedies are to be examined as
well as the causes, and also the effect of punishment as a means of reformation and prevention10

Anthropological criminology (sometimes referred to as criminal anthropology, literally a

combination of the study of the human species and the study of criminals) is a field of offender
profiling, based on perceived links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical
appearance of the offender. Although similar to physiognomy and phrenology, the term criminal
anthropology is generally reserved for the works of the Italian school of criminology of the late
19th century (Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo). Lombroso thought that
criminals were born with inferior physiological differences which were detectable. He
popularized the notion of “born criminal” and thought that criminality was an atavism or
hereditary disposition. His central idea was to locate crime completely within the individual and
utterly divorce it from the surrounding social conditions and structures. A founder of the
Positivist school of criminology, Lombroso hereby opposed social positivism developed by the
Chicago school and environmental criminology.

The theory of anthropological criminology was influenced heavily by the ideas of Charles
Darwin (1809–1882). However, the influences came mainly from philosophy derived from
Darwin’s theory of evolution, specifically that some species were morally superior to others.
This idea was in fact spawned by Social Darwinism, but nevertheless formed a critical part of
anthropological criminology. The work of Cesare Lombroso was continued by Social Darwinists
in the United States between 1881 and 1911.

In the 19th century, Cesare Lombroso and his followers performed autopsies on criminals and
declared that they had discovered similarities between the physiologies of the bodies and those of
“primitive humans”, monkeys and apes. Most of these similarities involved receding foreheads,
height, head shape and size, and based on these Lombroso postulated the theory of the ‘born
criminal’. Lombroso also declared that the female offender was worse than the male, as they had
strong masculine characteristics.

Lombroso outlined 14 physiognomic characteristics which he and his followers believed to be

common in all criminals. 11 During Lombroso's life, British scientist Charles Goring 1870–1919

10
Criminal Anthropology available at https://www.lawyersnjurists.com/article/criminal-anthropology/ retrieved on
7 June 2022 at 12:52 am
11
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was also working in the same area, and concluded that there was no noticeable physiological
differences between law abiding people and those who committed crimes. Maurice Parmelee,
seen as the founder of modern criminology in America, also began to reject the theory of
anthropological criminology in 1911, which led to its eventual withdrawal from the field of
accepted criminology research. Despite general rejection of Lombroso's theories, anthropological
criminology still finds a place of sort in modern criminal profiling. Historically (particularly in
the 1930s) criminal anthropology had been associated somewhat with eugenics as the idea of a
physiological flaw in the human race was often associated with plans to remove such flaws. This
was found particularly in America, with the American Eugenics Movement between 1907 and
1939, and the Anti-miscegenation laws, and also in Germany during the Third Reich where
250,000 mentally disabled Germans were killed.

 Criminology and Biology

Biological theories within the field of criminology attempt to explain behaviors contrary to
societal expectations through examination of individual characteristics. These theories are
categorized within a paradigm called positivism (also known as determinism), which asserts that
behaviors, including law-violating behaviors, are determined by factors largely beyond
individual control. Positivist theories contrast with classical theories, which argue that people
generally choose their behaviors in rational processes of logical decision making, and with
critical theories, which critique lawmaking, social stratification, and the unequal distribution of
power and wealth.

The Biological theories in criminology were mainly based on the belief that delinquency could
be inherited. Apart from it, the approach highlights some physiological differences between the
criminals and the non-criminals. It noted factors like racial heritage, nutrition, learning
disabilities etc to be possible explanations behind criminal behavior and the tendency to get
involved in crime. Over time, the biological theories gained more credibility than most of the
other theories in criminology. Biological theories can be classified into three types:

 those that attempt to differentiate among individuals on the basis of certain innate (i.e.,
those with which you are born) outward physical traits or characteristics
 those that attempt to trace the source of differences to genetic or hereditary
characteristics; and
 those that attempt to distinguish among individuals on the basis of structural, functional,
or chemical differences in the brain or body12

12
Biological Theories of crime available at https://criminal-
justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/theories/biological-theories-of-crime/ retrieved on 7 June 2022
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Degeneration Theory (1857)

Degeneracy Theory, an offshoot of 19th century research into biological theories of crime,
argues that certain (lower) social classes and races were predisposed to neurological and mental
illnesses by inheritance, making them more likely to commit crimes.

Those in low social standing, such as prostitutes, criminals, the poor, and those with mental
illnesses, were morally defective and represented a regression in human evolution. B.A. Morel
(1857) proposed the first theory of progressive degeneracy in his book, Traits des
Dégénérescences Physiques, Intellectuelles et Morales de l’Espèce Humaine.

Morel believed that the use of specific substances such as hashish, alcohol, and opium resulted in
progressive physical and moral deterioration that would get passed on from one generation to the
next, resulting in a society with both a worsened intellectual and moral character as well as
certain physical characteristics.

This theory would come to influence Cesare Lombroso's biological theory of crime. Another key
aspect of degeneration theory is the idea that moral degeneracy is heritable. Degeneration
theorists widely believed that the moral and physical pathologies leading to low social status
would persist and proliferate from generation to generation biologically and socially.Thus
degeneration theorists believed that the so-called "miscegenation" between morally-defective
people should be regulated by eugenics and moral hygiene for the good of society.

Atavistic Theory of Crime (1876)

Cesare Lombroso (1876) was most famous for developing the avastic theory of crime in his
book, The Criminal Man. In this book, Lombroso argued that there is a distinct biological class
of people prone to criminality. Lombroso's (1876) theory of criminology suggests that
criminality is inherited and that someone "born criminal"' could be identified by the way they
look.

He suggested that there was distinct biological class of people that were prone to criminality.
These people exhibited ‘atavistic’ (i.e. primitive) features. Lombroso suggested that they were
‘throwbacks’ who had biological characteristics from an earlier stage of human development that
manifested as a tendency to commit crimes.

Sheldon Somotypes Theory (1942)

William Sheldon (1942) proposed a strong correlation between personality and somatotype (i.e.
physique).From a study of several hundred male physiques he derived three made body types:

1. The ectomorph, characterized by a thin, wiry frame.

2. The endomorph, heavy and rounded.
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3. The mesomorph, with a solid, muscular frame.

Each body types was associated with a particular personality:

1. Ectomorph = introvert, quiet,

fragile, sensitive
2. Endomorph = relaxed, sociable,
tolerant, peaceful
3. Mesomorph = aggressive,
assertive, and adventurous.

Sheldon noted that the vast majority of

criminal were mesomorphs. One
explanation for this is that a solid
muscular person becomes involved in
crime at an early age due to their
intimidating appearance.This biological theory may seem implausible, but people often
stereotype others on characteristics such as their appearance.Certain individual’s (e.g. the police)
may make “snapshot” judgments about people which may have implications for criminal
behavior.

Terrie Moffit's Two-Path Theory (1993)

Terrrie Moffit's Two-Path theory is a biosocial theory of crime. Moffit (1993) proposes that there
are two groups of people who commit crimes: life-course-persistent offenders, whose anti-social,
criminal behavior begins in childhood and continues to worsen thereafter, and adolescence-
limited offenders, whose antisocial behavior begins in adolescence but ends in young adulthood.

While life-course-persistent offenders are rare but pathological in nature, adolescent-limited

offenders are relatively common, temporary, and near the normal. Moffit's two-path theory has
had important implications for criminal policy, as one of the most widely received modern
criminological theories.

Notably, those who follow Moffit's theory believe that about 5% of the population could be life-
course-persistent offenders. The government of Hamburg, Germany, in response to this theory,
has screened primary-school age children in an attempt to provide social therapeutic measures
that could possibly compensate for poor parental support.
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Modern Biological Theories of Crime

Modern biological theories of crime focus specifically on how different regions of the brain are
responsible for thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, and how the dysfunction of these regions can
cause criminality.

Neurological Theories of Crime

Neural explanations look at the structure and functioning of the central nervous system.There are
several regions of the brain that criminologists and neurologists have focused on in modern
biological studies of crime. The cerebral cortex makes up the outer part of the brain, and is
divided into left and right hemispheres. Each hemisphere has four lobes.

Criminologists have focused on the frontal lobe in their biological theories of crime because the
region is involved in abstract thought, planning, goal formation, sustaining attention and
concentration, self-monitoring, and behavioral inhibition (Moffit, 1990; Ishikawa and Raine,
2003).

Raine et al. (1997) carried out a study of 41 violent of murderers and found reduced activity in
the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system of these offenders compared with control non-
criminals.

Individuals with Antisocial Personality Disorder (psychopathy) display a decrease of emotional

response and lack of empathy with others. These symptoms have been found in many offenders.

Brain imaging studies have found reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex of individuals with
APD. Additionally, Raine et al. (2000) found a reduced volume of grey matter in this region in
the brain of these individuals.

Neuroscientists also study how chemicals in the brain known as neurotransmitters can work to
influence thought, emotion, and behavior. For example, some studies have shown that excessive
levels of dopamine may be related to aggressive and criminal behaviors, and antipsychotic drugs
that reduce dopamine may also be used to reduce aggression. Similarly, scientists have found
that increased levels of norepinephrine can result in aggressive behavior, and reduced levels can
lead to antisocial behavior. These results suggest that both high and low levels of norepinephrine
can result in behavioral problems. Another neurotransmitter of interest to biological theories of
crime is serotonin, an inhibitory neurotransmitter used throughout the brain, including in the
limbic system and frontal cortex.

Genetic Explanations

Genetic explanations of crime propose that genetic factors could predispose individuals to
commit crimes because genes code for physiological factors such as the structure and
functioning of the nervous system and neurochemistry.
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Limitations of Modern Biological Theories of Crime- Biological genetic studies are limited
because they cannot determine which specific genetic factors lead to behavioral differences.
Many genes can disrupt normal development, resulting in abnormal behavior. To find out which
genes could be related to antisocial and criminal behavior, scientists have conducted molecular
genetic studies.

The biological approach is socially sensitive as it has consequences for the legal system and
society as a whole. If offending is genetic then people should not be considered responsible for
their crimes , however this then leaves an important decision to be made as to what is to be done
with these dangerous offenders. Based on this theory, crime prevention measures could include
genetic testing of the public but once individuals carrying genes predisposing to crime what do
we do with these individuals?13

 Criminology and Geography

Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quételet (a Belgium mathematician) and Andre-Michel Guerre (a
French statistician) in Europe during the 1830s and 1840s were the first to do detailed statistical
studies of crime. Some called this school of thought the “Cartographic School” since it used
maps to plot crimes within a certain geographic area.

As geography plays an important role within modern policing. Cartographic School can
contribute valuable information to criminal research and crime prevention. One of the most
important tools in identifying crime is Crime mapping, which is mapping of crime using a
geographic information system to conduct spatial analysis of crime problems and other police-
related issues. To this Cartographic School plays an important part. The cartographic school
introduced the first spatial and ecological perspectives on crime.

Significantly it showed that the crime is a necessary expression of social conditions. The basic
idea was that crime is caused by the conflicts of values that arise when legal norms do not take
into consideration the behavioural norms that are specific to the lower socioeconomic classes as
well as to various age groups, religious groups, and interest groups living in certain geographic
areas.

In addition to this, the Cartographic school used objective mathematical techniques to investigate
the influence of social factors such as seasons, climate, sex and age on the propensity to commit
crime. The most important factor was these social forces correlated to significantly to crime
rates. In addition to finding age and sex had a stronger influence in crime, the Cartographic
school uncovered evidence that season, climate, population composition and poverty were also
related to criminality, most specifically the crime rates were greater in the summer in southern
areas among heterogeneous population, and among the poor and uneducated, they were highly

13
Biological theories of crime available at https://www.simplypsychology.org/biological-theories-crime.html
retrieved on 7 June 2022 at 3:22 am
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influenced by drinking habits. This school identified many relationships between crime and
social phenomena that still servers as a basis for criminal studies.14

 Criminology and economics

Society plays a crucial role in deciding the character of a
particular person. The character of the community will be
readily reflected in a person’s character. Thus, the person who
lives in a good and healthy society may have good character
when compared to a person living in a slum or any such area.
This statement was well established in Bonger’s theory of
economic criminality. In this theory, William Adriaan Bonger
stated that there is a causal link between crime and the
prevailing economic and social conditions. He asserted that
crime is social in origin and a normal response to prevailing
cultural conditions. He contended that in a more or primitive
society, survival requires more selfless altruism in the
community.
When capitalism emerges, there were social forces of competition and wealth, resulting in an
unequal distribution of resources which also lead to individualism. Once self-interest and more
egoistic impulses assert in a person, crime emerges. People with a low economic background
would commit a crime out of need or out of a sense of injustice. Those who exercise power
control and impose punishment, equating the definition of the crime, with harm or threat of harm
to property and business interests of the powerful. Bonger also believed that crime in streets was
a result of various conditions in which workers lived in competition with one another. He
believed that poverty alone could not be a cause of crime but rather coupled with individualism,
materialism, false needs, racism and the false thoughts regarding violence and

Once self-interest and more egoistic impulses assert in a person, crime emerges. People with a
low economic background would commit a crime out of need or out of a sense of injustice.
Those who exercise power control and impose punishment, equating the definition of the crime,
with harm or threat of harm to property and business interests of the powerful. Bonger also
believed that crime in streets was a result of various conditions in which workers lived in
competition with one another. He believed that poverty alone could not be a cause of crime but
rather coupled with individualism, materialism, false needs, racism and the false thoughts
regarding violence and dominations among the people.[4]

14
Cartographic school available at https://tholath.wordpress.com/2008/10/21/cartographic-school/ retrieved on 7
June 2022 at 6:11 pm
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According to Bonger, the following were to be the major reasons for the commission of an
offense

1. Financial necessities
2. Poverty
3. Lack of education
4. Egoistic factors
5. Inequality among the rich and the poor in the same community
6. Lack of social security, etc15

 Criminology and Environment

Environmental Criminology the important key points of this theory are:
 Environmental criminology is concerned with crime, not criminals who get the
opportunity to commit the crime. This theory suggests that crime is influenced, if not
caused, by a person’s spatial environment.
 Crimes tend to occur in known places or near limited travel uknowledge space
 Offenders tend to limit their search area for victimization targets near their nodes and
travel routines, which is called the “offender’s awareness space
 the important environmental criminology theories are: Routine activity theory, Offender
search theory, Situational crime prevention theory, and Broken windows theory 16

 Criminology and psychiatry

Psychiatric Criminology Forensic psychiatry is the discipline at the heart of the interaction
between mental disorder and criminal behavior. Forensic psychiatry is concerned with basic
research into the nature of the relationship between mental state and offending and with the
practical aspects of the mentally disordered offender's progress through the courts and treatment.

15
Economic Theory of Crime available at https://blog.ipleaders.in/economic-theory-crime/ retrieved on 7 June
2022 at 2:18 am
16
What are the theories of criminology https://psychologytosafety.com/what-are-the-theories-of-criminology/
retrieved on 7 June 2022 at 3:47 pm
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Criminology: An Interdisciplinary
Approach
Bartol argues effectively that ‘our inability to prevent crime is partly due to our problems in
understanding criminal behavior, a complex phenomenon. Since crime is complex, it goes
without saying that explanations of crime require complicated, involved answers. Research
indicates that most people have a very limited tolerance for complexity and ambiguity. They
apparently want simple, straight forward answers for even a very complex issue. As behavioral
scientists we need to understand that criminal behavior is a vastly complex, yet poorly
understood phenomenon. There is no all encompassing psychological explanation for crime, than
there is sociological, anthropological, psychiatric, economic or historic one. Without the help of
many disciplines, for sociology or psychology to reach the basic ‘truth’ is almost impossible. In
most, understanding criminal behavior calls for an inter disciplinary approach integrating data,
theory and the practical view point of each discipline.

The scientific study of the causes of delinquency and crime has been historically guided by
theory. A good theory is said to provide a foundational lens through which to interpret and
understand the manifestation of a behavior. In the field of criminology, the theoretical lens has
been primarily guided by concepts germane to the fields of sociology, psychology, and biology,
and the behavior to be explained is typically behavior that violates the codified laws of our
society (i.e., crime and delinquency). Although isolated theories have provided empirical insight
into the important factors perceived and expected to explain delinquency and crime, no single
theory can adequately explain all types of crime and delinquency or all of the variation in crime
and delinquency. In response to the absence of a “magic bullet” theory, scholars have begun to
integrate theories in hopes of explaining a greater proportion of delinquency and crime.
Theoretical integration generally involves borrowing theoretical constructs from competing
theories and combining them into a single theory. Integrating theories within criminology is
particularly advantageous because it allows scholars to begin to understand the behavior under
study in a more complex, and potentially more complete, manner.17

Hence, criminology utilizes multi-disciplinary approach. Knowledge about criminal actions

encompasses psychology, sociology, psychiatry, anthropology, biology, neurology, political
science, economics etc. we need to learn concepts, theories and research knowledge from other

17
Criminology Theories available at https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology/theories/ retrieved on 7
June 2022
20 | C r i m i n o l o g y a s I n t e g r a t i o n o f v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s

disciplines to understand, explain and prevent criminal behaviors18 one should not assume this
there is only one reason why a person commits crime. Researchers looking for a single
explanation should be cautious, because there is no panacea for the problem of crime.

18 Psychiatrist and the science of criminology: Sociological, psychological and psychiatric analysis of the dark side

available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2899996/ retrieved on 7 June 2022 4:45 pm

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