energies
Article
Effects of Multi-Stage Split Injection on Efficiency and
Emissions of Light-Duty Diesel Engine
Seungwoo Kang , Sanguk Lee






Citation: Kang, S.; Lee, S.; Bae, C.
Effects of Multi-Stage Split Injection
on Efficiency and Emissions of
Light-Duty Diesel Engine. Energies
2022, 15, 2219. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en15062219
Academic Editor: Constantine D.
Rakopoulos
Received: 16 February 2022
Accepted: 15 March 2022
Published: 18 March 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 2219. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062219
and Choongsik Bae *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST),
Daejeon 34141, Korea; swoo@kaist.ac.kr (S.K.); sulee@kaist.ac.kr (S.L.)
* Correspondence: csbae@kaist.ac.kr
Abstract: The efficiency of light-duty diesel engines should be improved for further emissions
regulation. Multi-stage split injection with five injection events was investigated for improvement
in efficiency at low-load conditions. The injection timing and quantity were adjusted to achieve a
smooth in-cylinder pressure rise and continuous heat release. The multi-stage split injection was
compared to injection strategies involving two-pilot and single-main injections. A 0.5 L single-
cylinder diesel engine experiment was conducted under low-load conditions. Two multi-stage
split injection processes with different combustion phases were developed. The multi-stage split
injections yielded a smooth in-cylinder pressure trace and a lower peak heat release rate than the
two-pilot injection process. The combustion duration was shorter for multi-stage split injection with
an advanced combustion phase, and the fuel consumption was reduced by 1.78% with lower heat
transfer, exhaust heat, and combustion loss. The multi-stage split injection flame penetration was
shorter than the two-pilot injections. The shorter flame penetration and lower tip velocity reduced
the heat transfer to the combustion chamber. The PM emissions were also reduced by 30% under the
same NOx emissions, because increased PM oxidation and divided fuel injection prevented flame
diffusion and improved air utilization.
Keywords: injection strategy; split injection; flame visualization; engine efficiency; engine emissions
1. Introduction
Diesel engines generally have higher efficiencies and torques than spark-ignition
engines because of their high compression ratios and lean-burn operation [1]. However,
nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions must be managed to conform
to emission standards [2,3]. Additionally, future regulations will require further fuel econ-
omy improvement and emission reduction for diesel engines. Accordingly, various studies
have focused on refinements to diesel-engine components to reduce fuel consumption and
engine-out emissions.
The multiple injection method is an essential technique for modern common-rail
diesel engines [4]. Diesel engines use multiple injection events for various purposes.
Usually, most of the fuel for the engine cycle is injected in the main injection event. The
pilot injections control the NOx and PM emissions and limit the combustion noise, peak
cylinder pressure, and exhaust temperature. The post injections control the PM emissions
and exhaust gas temperature for after-treatment or turbocharger systems [5]. Previously,
Hotta et al. [6] reported that post-injection provides additional energy, which improves
mixing and enhances the soot oxidation process at the end of the combustion process. They
also reported that post-injection increases the temperature in the combustion chamber and
the soot oxidation rate.
With improvements in manufacturing technology, some fuel injection equipment man-
ufacturers have incorporated the closely coupled pilot injection method [7,8]; this technique
reduces combustion noise by simultaneously maintaining or reducing soot emissions. In
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Energies 2022, 15, 2219 2 of 16

particular, closely coupled pilot injection and multiple injections have been found to shape
the combustion rate and reduce combustion noise [9–11]. Denny et al. [12–14] investigated
the combustion phenomenon and noise reduction of closely coupled triple-pilot injection
in a series of studies. They examined the effects of triple-pilot injection strategies with
various dwell times less than 100 µs and found that high partially oxidized fuel fractions
are achieved when the injections occur at short intervals. Their findings indicate that fuel
injections impact the prevailing combustion regions, with hotter combustion products
replacing cooler combustion products. Additionally, triple-pilot injection strategies yield
noise reduction despite the increased maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR). They also
showed that the combustion noise is correlated with the dip or valley in the heat release
rate with a deep valley yielding higher noise.
The term “split injection” usually refers to a process of multiple injections, where the
main injection is divided into two or more injections. In several studies, Ewphun et al. [15,16]
utilized multi-pulse split injection for peak heat release reduction and thermal efficiency
improvement in premixed-charge compression ignition (PCCI) combustion. The injection
strategies included two-pilot injections and a split main injection, where the latter was di-
vided into 2–4 pulses. The four-pulse main injection process yielded prolonged combustion
in the expansion stroke and degraded thermal efficiency; however, the three-pulse main
injection setup effectively reduced the peak heat release rate and improved the thermal
efficiency. Similarly, Yang et al. [17] investigated combustion with the main injection split
into two injections. The second injection caught the presenting flame, thereby deteriorating
the combustion process and increasing soot formation. To date, studies on split-injection
strategies have typically focused on the consequences of split-injection strategies with
evenly divided injection quantities. Moreover, the efficiency improvement due to the
implementation of a split-injection strategy in a conventional diesel combustion process
under low-load conditions via flame visualization has been reported rarely, compared to the
studies on multiple-injection strategies including the pilot, main, and post-injections [5]. Im-
proving the efficiency under low-load operation is important because low-load conditions
are the main operation points in a light-duty diesel engine.
A further understanding of the effect of multi-stage split injection on efficiency and
emissions is required. The primary aim of this study was to analyze the effects of multi-stage
split (MSS) injection in a light-duty diesel engine under low load in terms of combustion
formation and energy balance. Thus, an MSS injection strategy was established to smooth
the in-cylinder pressure from the combustion, maintaining the combustion phase. Com-
paring fuel efficiency and exhaust emissions from various injection strategies maintaining
the combustion phase is important so that the effects of injection strategies can be verified
clearly. The flame penetration behavior was observed for several injection strategies to
analyze the heat transfer loss. In addition, heat balance analysis was performed, and the
PM emissions were investigated.

2. Materials and Methods

The experimental apparatus and conditions for the paper are described in this sec-
tion. The injection system, injectors, single-cylinder diesel engine, and a constant-volume
combustion chamber were utilized for engine and flame visualization experiments.

2.1. Injection System and Injectors

The fuel injection equipment (FIE) was modified for single-cylinder engine operation.
A common-rail fuel pump from a commercial diesel engine was used. An electric motor
was employed to drive the high-pressure fuel pump, and a modified engine control unit
was used to control the injector and fuel pump. The fuel flow rate was determined using a
Coriolis flowmeter (Bronkhorst mini CORI-FLOW). The fuel-tank temperature was main-
tained at 313 K. A solenoid-type injector was tested in this work; this injector is a variant of
the conventional injector used in light-duty diesel engines. Its specifications are listed in
Table 1.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

Energies 2022, 15, 2219 3 of 16

a variant of the conventional injector used in light-duty diesel engines. Its specifications
are listed in Table 1.

Table1.1.Injector
Table Injectorspecifications.
specifications.

Property
Property Unit
Unit Value
Value
Number
Number of holes
of holes - - 99
Orifice
Orificediameter (nozzleexit)
diameter (nozzle exit) μmµm 110
110
Hydraulic flow rate (HFR) cm 3 /min @100 bar 700
Hydraulic flow rate (HFR) cm /min @100 bar
3 700
K-factor
K-factor - ◦- 1.5
1.5
Included spray angle 153
Included spray angle ° 153

The
Theinjection
injectionrate
ratewas
wasmeasured
measuredusing
usingthe
the Bosch
Bosch long-tube
long-tube method
method [18–20].
[18–20]. In
In detail,
detail,
the pressure waves produced by fuel injection into a long tube containing compressible
the pressure waves produced by fuel injection into a long tube containing compressible
fluid
fluid were measured. The
were measured. Thebackpressure
backpressurewaswasmaintained
maintained at at
20 20
barbar
usingusing a relief
a relief valve,
valve, and
and the tube pressure was measured with a piezoelectric pressure transducer
the tube pressure was measured with a piezoelectric pressure transducer (Kistler, Winter- (Kistler,
Winterthur, Switzerland,
thur, Switzerland, 6052C)6052C) coupled
coupled with awith a charge
charge amplifier
amplifier (Kistler,
(Kistler, 5011). 5011).
FigureFigure
1 shows1
shows a schematic of the injection-rate measurement system used in the
a schematic of the injection-rate measurement system used in the experiments. experiments.

Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicof
ofinjection-rate
injection-ratemeter
metersystem
system(PCV:
(PCV:pressure
pressurecontrol
controlvalve).
valve).

2.2.
2.2. Single-Cylinder
Single-Cylinder Diesel
Diesel Engine
Engine
The engine experiments
The engine experiments were were performed
performedon ona a0.5
0.5L L single-cylinder
single-cylinder compression
compression ig-
ignition dieselengine
nition diesel enginemodified
modifiedfrom
fromaa commercial
commercial 2.0
2.0 LL four-cylinder
four-cylinder diesel
diesel engine.
engine. The
The
piston
piston bowl
bowl had
had aastepped-lip
stepped-lip design
design [21],
[21],and
andconventional
conventional diesel
diesel was
wasused
usedas asfuel.
fuel. A
A
schematic and detailed specifications of the engine apparatus are presented in
schematic and detailed specifications of the engine apparatus are presented in Figure Figure 2 and2
Table 2, respectively.
and Table A direct
2, respectively. currentcurrent
A direct dynamometer was used
dynamometer wastoused
maintain the engine
to maintain speed.
the engine
speed.
Table 2. Specifications of 0.5 L single-cylinder diesel engine.

Property Unit Value

Engine type - Diesel, 4 stroke, single cylinder
Displaced volume cc 498.8
Stroke mm 84.0
Bore mm 90.0
Injection system - Common-rail direct injection
Compression ratio - 16:1
Number of intake/exhaust valves - 2/2
Energies 2022,15,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of
of 16
18

Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematicof
of0.5
0.5LLsingle-cylinder
single-cylinderdiesel
dieselengine;
engine;EGR:
EGR:exhaust
exhaustgas
gasrecirculation.
recirculation.

TableThe gaseous NOx,

2. Specifications HC,
of 0.5 and CO emissions
L single-cylinder were measured using an exhaust gas
diesel engine.
analyzer (Horiba, MEXA-7100D). The black smoke emissions were measured using a
filter smoke Property
number meter (AVL, 415S) Unit to estimate the PM emissions. Value
An exhaust gas
Engine type - Diesel, 4 stroke,
recirculation (EGR) valve was installed between the intake and exhaust manifolds single to
cylinder
control
the EGR.Displaced volume pressure was measured
The in-cylinder cc in crank angle degree498.8
(CAD) increments
of 0.2 using aStroke mm (Kistler, 6056A) installed
piezoelectric pressure transducer 84.0
at the glow plug
position. Pressure
Bore data were acquired with
mm a charge amplifier (Kistler, 5011). The heat
90.0
release Injection
rate was system
obtained from the in-cylinder - pressure profile averageddirect
Common-rail over 100 engine
injection
cycles Compression
via the following
ratioequation [22]: - 16: 1
Number of intake/exhaust
dQ γ -dV 1 dp 2/2
valves = p + V (1)
dθ γ − 1 dθ γ − 1 dθ

The
In gaseous
general, theNOx,
energyHC,balance
and COcan emissions were measured
be determined from theusing an exhaust
measured gas ana-
compositions
lyzertemperatures
and (Horiba, MEXA-7100D).
of the intakeThe andblack smoke
exhaust emissions
gases. were measured
The thermal using a for
balance equation filter
a
smoke number
cylinder meter (AVL,
can be expressed 415S) to estimate the PM emissions. An exhaust gas recircu-
as [23]:
lation (EGR) valve was .installed . between the intake . and. exhaust . manifolds to control the
EGR. The in-cylinderQ +
pressure
f uel H was
int = P
measured
indicated + Q
in crank
HT + H
angle
exh + Q com (CAD) increments(2)
degree of
0.2 using .a piezoelectric pressure transducer .
(Kistler, 6056A) installed at the glow plug
position.
where (Q fPressure
uel ) is thedata
fuelwere acquired
heating value,withH int aischarge amplifierenthalpy,
the intake-gas (Kistler, 5011). Theis heat
Pindicated the
. .
release rate was obtained from the in-cylinder pressure profile averaged
indicated engine power, Q HT is the heat transfer loss, H exh is the exhaust-gas enthalpy, and over 100 engine
.
cycles via the following equation [22]:
Qcom is the combustion loss due to the incomplete combustion. The difference between
. . . .
H int and H exh is the exhaust loss. 𝑑𝑄 H int and𝛾 H𝑑𝑉 can 1be calculated 𝑑𝑝 from the intake- and
= 𝑝 exh 𝑉 (1)
exhaust-gas mass flow rates, temperature, 𝑑𝜃 𝛾 1compositions,
𝑑𝜃 𝛾 1 and 𝑑𝜃 specific heat capacities via
the following
In general, equations:
the energy balance . can be . determined from the measured compositions
and temperatures of the intake and H = m int · cgases.
int exhaust p, int · TThe
int thermal balance equation for (3)a
cylinder can be expressed as [23]:. .
H exh = mexh · c p, exh · Texh (4)
. . 𝑄 𝐻 = 𝑃 𝑄 𝐻 𝑄 (2)
where mint and mexh are the mass flow rates, c p, int and c p, exh are the specific heat capacities,
and Tint(𝑄and )Texh
where is the
arefuel heating value,of𝐻the is
the temperatures the intake-gas
intake and exhaust enthalpy, 𝑃 is the
gases, respectively. In
this work,engine
indicated the enthalpy
power, of𝑄 each component
is the was loss,
heat transfer 𝐻
calculated isfrom the NIST Chemistry
the exhaust-gas enthalpy,
and 𝑄 [24].
WebBook is the combustion loss due to the incomplete combustion. The difference be-
tween 𝐻 and 𝐻 is the exhaust loss. 𝐻 and 𝐻 can be calculated from the
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 5 of 16

.
Finally, Qcom can be calculated from the chemical energy of the unburned products
.
(HC and CO) in the exhaust gas, and Q HT can be derived by subtracting Pindicated , exhaust
.
loss, and Qcom from Q f uel .
Table 3 lists the engine’s experimental conditions. Under each experimental condition,
the injection quantity was regulated to maintain the indicated mean effective pressure
(IMEP). The EGR was applied in terms of NOx concentration. The EGR was increased until
the NOx concentration reached 200 ppm.

Table 3. Experimental conditions for engine experiments; IMEP: indicated mean effective pressure.

Property Unit Value

Engine speed rpm 1500
IMEP bar 5.45
Injection pressure bar 650
Injection event - 2 pilots + 1 main injections Multi-stage split injection
Fuel temperature K 313
Coolant temperature K 353

2.3. Constant-Volume Combustion Chamber for Combustion Visualization

Figure 3 shows the constant-volume combustion chamber (CVCC) used for flame
penetration measurement. Here, ambient temperature and pressure similar to those in
an actual diesel engine were simulated. The CVCC specifications are listed in Table 4.
Following pre-mixture formation using hydrogen (H2 ), acetylene (C2 H2 ), oxygen (O2 ),
and nitrogen (N2 ), the pre-mixture was ignited by two spark plugs from each side of the
chamber. The initial chamber temperature was maintained at 473 K to ensure complete
pre-combustion. The pre-burn procedure was performed with reference to the Engine Com-
bustion Network [25,26]. After ten iterations of the pre-burn test, the injection timing was
determined based on the average time at which the chamber pressure reached the target
pressure following the spark timing for pre-burn. The chamber pressure was sampled
at 100 kHz frequency using a piezoelectric pressure transducer (Kistler, 6141B). Simulta-
neously, spray images were captured using a high-speed camera (Vision Research Inc.,
Phantom VEO 710L). The high-speed camera shutter speed was 20,000 frames per second,
implying that images were captured at 50 µs intervals. The lens used for the experiment
was Nikon 28–70 mm f/3.5–4.5 AF. The f-number was 11 for the flame visualization.

Table 4. CVCC specifications.

Property Unit Value

Volume L ~1.4 (1.39)
Material - S45C (C 0.45%)
Optical view - Five quartz windows with 100 mm diameter

The target oxygen concentration after the pre-burn was 15% to simulate the EGR
condition. The target CVCC temperature and pressure were 973 K and 50 bar, respectively.
The injection quantity and pressure were fixed at 14.3 mg and 650 bar, respectively. During
each chamber experiment, the pre-burn pressure was measured using a data acquisition
(DAQ) system, and the fuel was injected at a predetermined time after the spark. When the
measured pressure in the chamber satisfied 50 bar within an error range of 0.5% at the start
of injection, this measurement was accepted as a valid data point; a total of 5 valid data
points were acquired. The flame penetration was averaged from the results of five repeated
experiments.
Energies 2022,15,
Energies2022, 15,2219
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of 16
18

Figure3.3.Constant
Figure Constantvolume
volumecombustion
combustionchamber
chamber(CVCC);
(CVCC);DAQ:
DAQ:data
dataacquisition
acquisitionsystem.
system.
3. Results
Table 4. CVCC specifications.
3.1. Multi-Stage Split Injection
The MSS Property
injection for improved Unit Value
engine efficiency was investigated. The injection
quantities andVolume
timings were adjustedLto maintain the slope of the ~1.4pressure
(1.39) trace from the
combustionMaterial
as that of the motoring pressure.- The injection S45C
parameters
(C 0.45%)were adjusted to
yield the Optical
target combustion
view phase. The - minimum interval
Five quartz betweenwith
windows injection signals
100 mm was
diameter
300 µs, as this was the solenoid-injector operating margin. Note that if the interval between
injections is too short,
The target oxygenthe injections become
concentration unstable.
after the pre-burn was 15% to simulate the EGR con-
This
dition. injection
The targetstrategy requires divided
CVCC temperature and injections, because
pressure were 973itKaims
andfor50the combustion
bar, to
respectively.
be
Thedistributed rather than
injection quantity andconcentrated
pressure were with continuous
fixed at 14.3 mgheat release.
and However,
650 bar, due toDur-
respectively. the
minimum injectionexperiment,
ing each chamber interval described above, pressure
the pre-burn five injection
was events
measured would require
using a dataanacquisi-
actual
spray duration of at least 25 CAD. If the number of injections is larger
tion (DAQ) system, and the fuel was injected at a predetermined time after the spark. than that, the overall
fuel
Whensupply time is extended,
the measured pressure and
in thethe combustion
chamber period
satisfied is prolonged,
50 bar within an errorwhich adversely
range of 0.5%
affects
at the start of injection, this measurement was accepted as a valid data point; a totalThis
fuel efficiency. Therefore, five injection events at 1500 rpm were determined. of 5
study
valid presented
data pointsthe wereinjection profiles
acquired. The with
flamea penetration
smooth pressure rise and suppressed
was averaged MPRR
from the results of
by conducting a parametric
five repeated experiments. study while monitoring the combustion shape.
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 7 of 16

Figure 4 shows the in-cylinder pressure trace, heat release rate, pressure rise rate, and
injection current for the MSS injection strategy in the single-cylinder engine. Because the
injection quantities and timings were set to yield a smooth in-cylinder pressure trace, the
in-cylinder pressure continuously increased from 10 CAD BTDC (before top dead center) to
10 CAD ATDC (after top dead center). The MSS injection was composed of five injections
as indicated by the circled numbers in Figure 4. The first and second injections had short
injection durations and small injection quantities. In comparison, the third to fifth injections
had longer injection durations and larger injection quantities. The heat release rate trend
exhibited several peaks in response to the injections. In detail, the first injection showed
negligible heat release and the second injection yielded the first notable heat release rate
peak. The third to fifth injections each yielded subsequent heat release peaks, as indicated
by the arrows in Figure 4. The pressure rise rate is shown in the third (bottom) profile
of Figure 4. Even though the heat releases from the fourth and fifth injections were high,
the MPRR was from the heat release of the third injection as this result was before and
near TDC.
Figure 5 shows the measured injection current and averaged injection rate from the
Bosch tube method. The injection rate was acquired from 100 repeats. The average peak
injection rate of the first injection was 4.7 mg/ms, and the standard deviation was 0.1656.
Thus, the injector maintained the uniform injection rate and quantity from each injection
cycle. The actual injection was started after 275 µs from the injection signal starts. Table 5
is the measured injection quantity from the MSS injection strategy. The injection quantity
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
from the fourth injection occupied the highest proportion. The injection rate profiles include
the needle rebound and pressure oscillations in the tube.

Figure4.4. The
Figure Thein-cylinder
in-cylinder pressure,
pressure, heat
heat release
release rate,
rate, pressure
pressure rise
rise rate,
rate, and
and injection
injection current
current of
of the
the
MSS injection.
MSS injection.

Figure 5 shows the measured injection current and averaged injection rate from the
Bosch tube method. The injection rate was acquired from 100 repeats. The average peak
injection rate of the first injection was 4.7 mg/ms, and the standard deviation was 0.1656.
Thus, the injector maintained the uniform injection rate and quantity from each injection
cycle. The actual injection was started after 275 μs from the injection signal starts. Table 5
is the measured injection quantity from the MSS injection strategy. The injection quantity
from the fourth injection occupied the highest proportion. The injection rate profiles in-
clude the needle rebound and pressure oscillations in the tube.
 Bosch tube method. The injection rate was acquired from 100 repeats. The average peak
injection rate of the first injection was 4.7 mg/ms, and the standard deviation was 0.1656.
Thus, the injector maintained the uniform injection rate and quantity from each injection
cycle. The actual injection was started after 275 μs from the injection signal starts. Table 5
is the measured injection quantity from the MSS injection strategy. The injection quantity
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 8 of 16
from the fourth injection occupied the highest proportion. The injection rate profiles in-
clude the needle rebound and pressure oscillations in the tube.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Injection
Injection rate
rate profile
profile of
of the
theMSS
MSSinjection
injectionstrategy.
strategy.

Table 5. Injection quantity for each MSS injection event.

Injection Event Injection Quantity

#1 0.96
#2 1.02
#3 3.02
#4 5.16
#5 4.07
#6 14.3

3.2. Combustion of the Multi-Stage Split-Injection Process

Two MSS injection strategies were compared with a reference two-pilot injection
strategy. Figure 6 shows the in-cylinder pressure trace, heat release rate, pressure rise rate,
and injection current results obtained for the two-pilot injection strategy and two MSS
injection strategies under a 1500 rpm load and 5.35 bar IMEP without EGR. The reference
injection strategy included two-pilot injections and a single-main injection as shown in the
injection current profile in Figure 6. The main injection of the two-pilot injection strategy
was initiated at 2 CAD BTDC. The derivatives of the MSS injection strategy were developed
in terms of the combustion phase. Thus, the two MSS injection strategies were named
MSS-7 and MSS-8, where the numbers indicate the crank angle position at which 50% of
the heat was released (CA50). Note that MSS-8 was adjusted to have the same CA50 as
the reference injection strategy, which was 8.5 CAD ATDC. Thus, the CA50 of MSS-7 was
7.5 CAD ATDC. The MPRRs of the two-pilot and MSS-7 injection strategies were on the
same level.
For the two-pilot injection strategy, the in-cylinder pressure fluctuated in response to
the separate heat releases from the pilot and main injections. In contrast, the in-cylinder
pressure traces for the MSS injections were relatively smooth. Despite of the lower peak
heat release rate, the MSS-7 in-cylinder pressure was higher than that of the two-pilot
injection strategy because of the advanced combustion phase. The maximum in-cylinder
pressure was affected not only by the heat release rate but also the combustion duration
and combustion phase [10]. However, the peak in-cylinder pressure of the MSS-8 injection
was lower than that of the two-pilot injection strategy, even though the CA50 values of
both injection strategies were identical. Differences were apparent in the heat release rate
profiles of each injection strategy. The peak heat release rate for the MSS injection strategies
was lower than that of the two-pilot injection strategy because of the dispersed heat release
process. That is, the injection quantity of the main injection of the two-pilot strategy
constituted approximately 75% of the total injection quantity. As 75% of the fuel was
 Two MSS injection strategies were compared with a reference two-pilot injection
strategy. Figure 6 shows the in-cylinder pressure trace, heat release rate, pressure rise rate,
and injection current results obtained for the two-pilot injection strategy and two MSS
injection strategies under a 1500 rpm load and 5.35 bar IMEP without EGR. The reference
injection strategy included two-pilot injections and a single-main injection as shown in
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 the injection current profile in Figure 6. The main injection of the two-pilot injection 9strat- of 16

egy was initiated at 2 CAD BTDC. The derivatives of the MSS injection strategy were de-
veloped in terms of the combustion phase. Thus, the two MSS injection strategies were
named MSS-7
injected and MSS-8, where
in a single-injection event,the
thenumbers
combustionindicate the was
process crank angle position
concentrated, at which
which was
50% of the
reflected heatheat
in the wasrelease
released (CA50).
trace. Note that
In contrast, MSS-8 was
the injection adjusted
quantity tosingle-injection
for a have the same
event
CA50 inas the
the MSS strategies
reference constituted
injection strategy,less
whichthan 40%
was 8.5ofCAD
the total
ATDC.injection quantity
Thus, the CA50 as of
detailed
MSS-7 wasin Table 5. ForATDC.
7.5 CAD the MSS injection
The MPRRs strategies, some portion
of the two-pilot of the heat
and MSS-7 release
injection shifted
strategies
to TDC,
were onunlike the level.
the same behavior for the reference two-pilot injection strategy.

Figure6.6. In-cylinder
Figure In-cylinder pressure,
pressure, heat
heat release
release rate,
rate, pressure
pressure rise
rise rate,
rate, and
and injection
injection current
current results
results for
for
two-pilotinjection
two-pilot injectionstrategy
strategyand
andtwo
twoMSS
MSSinjection
injectionstrategies
strategieswithout
withoutEGR.EGR.

The MPRR of MSS-8 was lower than that of the reference injection strategy because
the pressure trace was smoother. A higher MPRR was obtained for MSS-7 because of the
advanced combustion phase.
Figure 7 shows the combustion phases of the reference strategy and the two MSS
injection strategies without EGR. The combustion phases from CA05 to CA90 are expressed
from left to right on each bar. As noted above, the CA50 values were the same for the
reference and MSS-8 injection strategies. From the figure, MSS-7 exhibited an advanced
combustion phase. However, the second half of the MSS-8 combustion phase was retarded
compared to the two-pilot injection strategy. Note that the fuel injection timing of the fifth
injection in the MSS-8 injection was considerably later than the end of the main injection
of the two-pilot injection process. As the MSS fuel supply was late, the combustion was
delayed. However, compared to the 4 CAD difference between the ends of the injections, the
difference in CA90 between MSS-8 and the two-pilot injection strategy was relatively small
(0.6 CAD). For MSS-7, the injection end was also later than that of the two-pilot injection;
however, the combustion duration was considerably shorter. These results indicate that the
late-phase combustion for MSS injection was considerably faster than that for the two-pilot
injection strategy.
 injection of the two-pilot injection process. As the MSS fuel supply was late, the combus-
tion was delayed. However, compared to the 4 CAD difference between the ends of the
injections, the difference in CA90 between MSS-8 and the two-pilot injection strategy was
relatively small (0.6 CAD). For MSS-7, the injection end was also later than that of the two-
pilot injection; however, the combustion duration was considerably shorter. These results
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 10 of 16
indicate that the late-phase combustion for MSS injection was considerably faster than
that for the two-pilot injection strategy.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Combustion
Combustionphases
phasesofofthe
thetwo-pilot
two-pilotinjection strategy
injection and
strategy thethe
and two MSS
two injection
MSS strate-
injection strategies.
gies.
Figure
Figure 88 shows
showsthethein-cylinder
in-cylinder pressure,
pressure, heatheat release
release rate, rate, pressure
pressure riseand
rise rate, rate,
in- and
injection current results for the two-pilot injection strategy and two MSS injection
jection current results for the two-pilot injection strategy and two MSS injection strategies strategies
with EGR.The
with EGR. Thecombustion
combustion forfor
thethe
firstfirst
and andsecondsecond injections
injections deteriorated
deteriorated due to thedue to the
low-
low-oxygen concentrations
oxygen concentrations and fueland fuel quantities.
quantities. Further,Further,
the heatthe heatfrom
release release
the from
fourththe fourth
injec-
injection increased
tion increased because
because somesomeportionportion
of theoffuel
thefrom
fuel the
from the preceding
preceding injections
injections burnedburned
in
in addition
addition to the
to the newly
newly injected
injected fuel.fuel.
As a As a result,
result, the MSS-8
the MSS-8 peak in-cylinder
peak in-cylinder pressurepressure
be-
became similar
came similar to that
to that of the
of the two-pilot
two-pilot injection
injection strategy.
strategy. Thepressure
The peak peak pressure difference
difference be-
between the two-pilot and MSS-7 injection strategies was more extensive
tween the two-pilot and MSS-7 injection strategies was more extensive than the non-EGR than the non-EGR
case.
case. In addition,
addition,the thepressure
pressurerise riserate
ratefrom
fromthethe fourth
fourth injection
injection waswas higher
higher thanthan in the
in the
non-EGR case. Overall, the results validate MSS injection
non-EGR case. Overall, the results validate MSS injection under EGR. under EGR.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. In-cylinder
In-cylinder pressure,
pressure,heat
heatrelease rate,
release pressure
rate, riserise
pressure rate, andand
rate, injection current
injection results
current for for
results
two-pilot strategy and two MSS injection strategies with EGR.
two-pilot strategy and two MSS injection strategies with EGR.

3.3. Flame Penetration Measurement

Flame penetration behaviors for single, two-pilot, and MSS injection strategies were
observed in a CVCC. Note that shorter flame penetration and lower tip velocity can be
interpreted as decreased interaction between the flame and piston; in that case, if the tem-
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 11 of 16

3.3. Flame Penetration Measurement

Flame penetration behaviors for single, two-pilot, and MSS injection strategies were
observed in a CVCC. Note that shorter flame penetration and lower tip velocity can be
interpreted as decreased interaction between the flame and piston; in that case, if the
temperature difference is assumed to be unchanged, the heat transfer decreases. Figure 9
shows the flame penetration profiles of the three injection strategies. Note that the single-
injection case was included for penetration comparison and that the profiles begin at the
first injection signal input of the two-pilot injection strategy. In the experiment, the start
timings of the single injection, main injection of the two-pilot strategy, and fourth injection
of the MSS injection strategy were synchronized (recall that the fourth injection of the MSS
injection strategy was the largest).
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18
The shortest flame penetration was obtained for MSS injection, along with the lowest
slope, which corresponded to the tip velocity (Figure 10). As the MSS strategy injected fuel
in smaller amounts, the fuel spray momentum was not maintained to a similar degree as
the spray from a single injection. Thus, the single injection, as well as the main injection of
the two-pilot strategy (having a longer injection duration), maintained a higher momentum
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW than the MSS injection. Furthermore, the single injection and the main injection12ofofthe 18

two-pilot strategy exhibited similar flame penetration after 3000 µs.

Figure 9. Flame penetration profiles of single, two-pilot, and MSS injection strategies.

The shortest flame penetration was obtained for MSS injection, along with the lowest
slope, which corresponded to the tip velocity (Figure 10). As the MSS strategy injected
fuel in smaller amounts, the fuel spray momentum was not maintained to a similar degree
as the spray from a single injection. Thus, the single injection, as well as the main injection
of the two-pilot strategy (having a longer injection duration), maintained a higher mo-
mentum than the MSS injection. Furthermore, the single injection and the main injection
Figure
of 9. Flame penetration
the two-pilot profiles of
of single,
profilessimilar
strategy exhibited single, two-pilot,
two-pilot,
flame and
and MSS
penetration afterinjection
MSS 3000 μs.strategies.
injection strategies.

The shortest flame penetration was obtained for MSS injection, along with the lowest
slope, which corresponded to the tip velocity (Figure 10). As the MSS strategy injected
fuel in smaller amounts, the fuel spray momentum was not maintained to a similar degree
as the spray from a single injection. Thus, the single injection, as well as the main injection
of the two-pilot strategy (having a longer injection duration), maintained a higher mo-
mentum than the MSS injection. Furthermore, the single injection and the main injection
of the two-pilot strategy exhibited similar flame penetration after 3000 μs.

Figure
Figure10.
10.Flame
Flametiptip
velocities of the
velocities single,
of the two-pilot,
single, and MSS
two-pilot, injection
and MSS strategies.
injection strategies.

Figure
Figure 11 shows flame
11 shows flame visualization
visualization images
images taken at 3500
taken at 3500 (upper)
(upper) and
and 4800
4800µsμs(lower),
(lower), respectively. The image taken at 3500 μs following the MSS injection shows
respectively. The image taken at 3500 µs following the MSS injection shows that the fifth that
the fifth injection penetrated the prevailing flame. Overall, the flame penetrations ob-
tained for the three injection strategies at 3500 μs, which was 900 μs after the injection rate
rise, were similar. However, at 5000 μs, the flame penetration for the MSS injection was
far shorter than those of the single- and two-pilot injection strategies.
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 12 of 16

injection penetrated the prevailing flame. Overall, the flame penetrations obtained for the
three injection strategies at 3500 µs, which was 900 µs after the injection rate rise, were
similar. However, at 5000 µs, the flame penetration for the MSS injection was
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
far shorter
13 of 18
than those of the single- and two-pilot injection strategies.

Figure
Figure 11.11.Flame
Flame visualization
visualization images at (upper)
images 35003500
at (upper) and (lower) 4800 μs,
and (lower) based
4800 µs,onbased
two-pilot in-
on two-pilot
jection signal starts.
injection signal starts.

3.4.3.4. Efficiencyand
Efficiency andExhaust
Exhaust Emissions
Emissions
Figures 12 and 13 show the exhaust emissions (i.e., the indicated specific PM (ISPM))
Figures 12 and 13 show the exhaust emissions (i.e., the indicated specific PM (ISPM))
and indicated specific fuel combustion (ISFC), respectively, of the reference strategy and
and indicated specific fuel combustion (ISFC), respectively, of the reference strategy and
MSS-7 and MSS-8. The PM emissions for the MSS injections were lower than those of the
MSS-7 and MSS-8. The PM emissions for the MSS injections were lower than those of
reference injection strategy for the same NOx emissions. Compared to the reference two-
thepilot
reference injection
injection, the PMstrategy
emissionsfor
of the same
MSS-7 andNOx
MSS-8emissions. Compared
injection were reducedtobythe reference
30.0%
two-pilot injection,
and 17.7%, the PM
respectively, emissions
when the NOxofemissions
MSS-7 andwereMSS-8 injection
the same were
with EGR reducedThis
adoption. by 30.0%
and 17.7%, can
outcome respectively,
be explainedwhen the NOx
as follows. Theemissions wereincreased
PM oxidations the same as with EGR adoption.
the temperature and This
outcome
pressurecan be explained
in the as follows.
cylinder increased. The PM
As shown oxidations
in Figure 8, the increased
in-cylinderas the temperature
pressure was
and pressure
higher withinthethe
MSScylinder increased.
injections because As shown
of the in Figure
shorter 8, theduration.
combustion in-cylinder pressure was
In addition,
the advanced
higher with thecombustion duration
MSS injections of theof
because MSS-7 injectioncombustion
the shorter resulted in higher in-cylinder
duration. In addition,
pressure than the conventional injection strategy. Therefore, the oxidation of PM in MSS
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 13 of 16
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

the advanced combustion duration of the MSS-7 injection resulted in higher in-cylinder
injections wasthe
pressure facilitated because of the in-cylinder pressure and temperature conditions.
injectionsthan conventional
was facilitated because injection strategy. Therefore,
of the in-cylinder pressure and the oxidation
temperature of PM in MSS
conditions.
Moreover,was
injections note that the MSS-8
facilitated because strategy
of the resulted in pressure
in-cylinder higher PM and emissions
temperature thanconditions.
MSS-7 be-
Moreover, note that the MSS-8 strategy resulted in higher PM emissions than MSS-7 be-
cause of thenote
Moreover, retarded combustion
that combustion
the phase. In detail, the
MSS-8 strategy retarded combustion phase yielded
cause of the retarded phase. Inresulted in retarded
detail, the higher PM emissions
combustion thanyielded
phase MSS-7
lower combustion
because of the temperature
retarded combustion and in-cylinder
phase. In pressure,
detail, which
the diminished
retarded combustionthe PM oxi-
phase
lower combustion temperature and in-cylinder pressure, which diminished the PM oxi-
dation. lower
yielded Furthermore,
combustion in terms of combustion,
temperature and fuel spray,
in-cylinder and prevailing
pressure, which combustion
diminished over-
the PM
dation. Furthermore, in terms of combustion, fuel spray, and prevailing combustion over-
lap, the cooling
oxidation. effect of fuel
Furthermore, spray decreased
in terms the fuel
oxidation of PM and increased the PM
lap, the cooling effect of fuel sprayofdecreased
combustion, the oxidationspray,of and
PMprevailing
and increasedcombustion
the PM
emissions.
overlap, theHowever, the MSS
cooling effect injections
of fuel had a certain
spray decreased time
thetime interval;
oxidation of PMthen, theincreased
swirl moved
emissions. However, the MSS injections had a certain interval; then,and
the swirl moved the
the prevailing
PM emissions. fuel and flame
However, the in theinjections
MSS swirl direction
had a [4,12].
certain Thus,
time the subsequent
interval; then, injection
the swirl
the prevailing fuel and flame in the swirl direction [4,12]. Thus, the subsequent injection
supplied
moved thefuel into the fuel
prevailing relatively
and flamefresh in
airthe
in the
swirlcylinder
direction without
[4,12].overlapping, which de-
Thus, the subsequent
supplied fuel into the relatively fresh air in the cylinder without overlapping, which de-
injection
creased the supplied fuel into As
PM formation. thedescribed
relativelyin fresh air 8,
Figure in the
the in-cylinder
cylinder withoutpressure overlapping,
was lower
creased the PM formation. As described in Figure 8, the in-cylinder pressure was lower
which
with thedecreased the PM formation.
MSS-8 injection, As describedwas
and the temperature in Figure 8, thethen,
also lower; in-cylinder pressureofwas
the oxidation the
with the MSS-8 injection, and the temperature was also lower; then, the oxidation of the
lower with the MSS-8 injection, and the temperature was also lower;
PM decreased. The ISFC trends were similar to the exhaust emission results. The MSS-7 then, the oxidation of
PM decreased. The ISFC trends were similar to the exhaust emission results. The MSS-7
the PM decreased.
yielded the best fuel Theefficiency
ISFC trends duewere
to thesimilar to thecombustion
advanced exhaust emission phaseresults. The MSS-7
and reduced heat
yielded the best fuel efficiency due to the advanced combustion phase and reduced heat
yielded
transferthe best
loss. fuel EGR
Under efficiency due to the
conditions, the fuel
advanced combustion
consumption of MSS-7phase and
and reduced
MSS-8 heat
injection
transfer loss. Under EGR conditions, the fuel consumption of MSS-7 and MSS-8 injection
transfer loss. Under
was reduced by 1.78% EGR andconditions, the fuel consumption
1.39%, respectively, compared to ofthe
MSS-7 and MSS-8
two-pilot injection
injection strat-
was reduced by 1.78% and 1.39%, respectively, compared to the two-pilot injection strat-
was
egy.reduced by 1.78%
The efficiency and 1.39%, respectively,
improvement of the MSS compared
injection was to the two-pilotwith
consistent injection strategy.
the reference
egy. The efficiency improvement of the MSS injection was consistent with the reference
The
[10].efficiency improvement of the MSS injection was consistent with the reference [10].
[10].

Figure12.
12. Exhaustemissions
emissions of the two-pilot injection strategy and two MSS injection strategies
Figure
Figure 12. Exhaust
Exhaust emissionsofofthethetwo-pilot
two-pilotinjection strategy
injection andand
strategy twotwo
MSSMSS
injection strategies
injection with
strategies
with EGR;
EGR;EGR; ISPM:
ISPM:ISPM: indicated
indicated specific
specific particulate
particulate matter.matter.
with indicated specific particulate matter.

Figure 13. Indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) results for the two-pilot injection strategy and
Figure
Figure 13. Indicated
Indicated specific
specific fuel
fuel consumption
consumption (ISFC)
(ISFC) results
results for
for the
the two-pilot
two-pilot injection
injection strategy
strategy and
and
the two13.
MSS injection strategies.
the two MSS injection strategies.
the two MSS injection strategies.
 Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 14 of 16

Figure 14 shows the energy balance analysis results. The indicated thermal efficiency
Figure
(ITE), exhaust14 shows theheat
heat loss, energy balance
transfer analysis
loss, results. The
and combustion indicated
loss thermal efficiency
were calculated. As for the
(ITE), exhaust heat loss, heat transfer loss, and combustion loss were calculated.
ISFC result, MSS-7 and the two-pilot injection strategy exhibited the highest and As for the
lowest
ISFC result, MSS-7 and the two-pilot injection strategy exhibited the highest
efficiencies, respectively. Compared to the two-pilot injection strategy, both the MSS in-and lowest
efficiencies,
jection methodsrespectively.
exhibited Compared to the two-pilot
lower heat transfer loss. Noteinjection
that the strategy,
low heat both theloss
transfer MSSof
injection methods exhibited lower heat transfer loss. Note that the low heat
the MSS injection strategies was consistent with the flame penetration and tip velocity transfer loss
of the MSS
results. In injection
particular,strategies was consistent
MSS-8 exhibited with thelower
considerably flameheat
penetration
transfer and
loss tip velocity
because the
results. In particular,
in-cylinder MSS-8
pressure was low,exhibited
and theconsiderably lower was
combustion phase heat retarded.
transfer loss because
Further, thethe
ex-
in-cylinder pressure was low, and the combustion phase was retarded. Further, the exhaust
haust heat loss decreased for MSS-7 because of the advanced combustion phase. MSS-8
heat loss decreased for MSS-7 because of the advanced combustion phase. MSS-8 exhibited
exhibited higher exhaust heat loss than the two-pilot injection strategy because the late
higher exhaust heat loss than the two-pilot injection strategy because the late combustion
combustion phase, which was from CA50 to the end of combustion of the former, was
phase, which was from CA50 to the end of combustion of the former, was retarded although
retarded although the CA50 values of both schemes were the same. Finally, the combus-
the CA50 values of both schemes were the same. Finally, the combustion loss decreased
tion loss decreased via a similar mechanism of decreased PM emissions. Overall, the MSS-
via a similar mechanism of decreased PM emissions. Overall, the MSS-7 injection strategy
7 injection strategy exhibited reduced heat transfer, exhaust heat transfer, and combustion
exhibited reduced heat transfer, exhaust heat transfer, and combustion loss compared to
loss compared to the two-pilot injection strategy.
the two-pilot injection strategy.

Figure 14. Energy balance analysis of the two-pilot injection strategy and the two MSS injection
strategies;
Figure 14.ITE: indicated
Energy thermal
balance efficiency.
analysis of the two-pilot injection strategy and the two MSS injection
strategies; ITE: indicated thermal efficiency.
4. Summary and Conclusions
Multi-stage
4. Summary andsplit (MSS) injection was investigated with the aim of improving the
Conclusions
efficiency and exhaust emission characteristics of a light-duty diesel engine under low load.
Multi-stage split (MSS) injection was investigated with the aim of improving the ef-
The MSS injection strategy was designed to smooth the in-cylinder pressure trace while
ficiency and exhaust emission characteristics of a light-duty diesel engine under low load.
maintaining a targeted combustion phase. The main results for the MSS injection process,
The MSS injection strategy was designed to smooth the in-cylinder pressure trace while
when compared to a reference two-pilot injection strategy, can be summarized as follows:
maintaining a targeted combustion phase. The main results for the MSS injection process,
•when The efficiency
compared toand exhausttwo-pilot
a reference emissionsinjection
of the MSS-7 strategy
strategy, (with
can be a CA50 ofas7.5
summarized CAD
follows:
ATDC) improved with no increase in the maximum pressure rise rate;
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 15 of 16

• The heat transfer, exhaust heat loss, and combustion loss of the MSS-7 injection strategy
were reduced compared to the two-pilot injection strategy
• For MSS injection, the heat transfer loss decreased because of the reduced peak heat
release rate, shortened flame penetration, and reduced tip velocity
• The MSS-injection flame penetration and tip velocity were lower than those of the
two-pilot injection and, thus, the interaction between the flame and piston wall
was reduced;
• Under EGR conditions, the fuel consumption of MSS-7 and MSS-8 injections were
reduced by 1.78% and 1.39%, respectively, compared to the two-pilot injection strategy;
• For the MSS-7 injection strategy, the exhaust heat loss was lower because of the
advanced combustion phase and short combustion duration;
• For the MSS-8 injection strategy, the heat transfer loss was lower than that of MSS-7;
however, the retarded late combustion phase yielded increased exhaust heat loss;
• Compared to the reference two-pilot injection, the PM emissions of the MSS-7 and MSS-
8 injections were reduced by 30.0% and 17.7%, respectively, when the NOx emissions
were the same with EGR adoption;
• The MSS-injection PM emissions and combustion loss were lower owing to the divided
combustion process along with the swirl effect. The swirl effect on divided combustion
resulted in each split fuel spray penetrating the fresh air without overlapping with
prevailing combustion.
In this study, MSS injection was capable of reducing fuel consumption and exhaust
emissions under low-load conditions. However, the injection end was later than that of
conventional two-pilot injection, which could affect post-injection processes in terms of
injection timing. However, conventional post-injections tend to be implemented 8–10 CAD
later than the main injection, and this timeframe does not overlap with the MSS injection
timing of this study. Another consideration for MSS injection application is the potential
impact on the injector durability, as MSS injection requires an increased number of valve ac-
tuation. Thus, further strategy optimization and a control model can be considered in future
investigations, especially in the context of higher load conditions. As the load and speed
condition increases, the required injection quantity will be increased, and the time window
for injection will be narrower. Therefore, the performance of fuel injection equipment
would be necessary for maintaining the effect of MSS injection. At higher injection pressure,
the injection rate increased, and the injection duration decreased. However, even if MSS
injection at a higher load had a negative effect, the MSS injection strategy can be adopted
for low-load conditions. Modern electrically controlled engines can apply various injection
strategies for each load condition without significant additional cost. Finally, note that the
MSS injections considered in this study were implemented with a solenoid injector, which
has a longer required dwell time between injections than a piezo-actuated injector. Thus,
further strategy optimization can be performed with a piezo-actuated injector, especially
under higher speed and load conditions. This is because the required injection quantity is
large, and the time window for supplying fuel to the cylinder is shortened under higher
speed and load conditions. Overall, the findings of this study indicate the feasibility of
MSS injection for a light-duty diesel engine in the context of both improved efficiency and
reduced emissions.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.K. and C.B.; methodology, S.K. and S.L.; investigation,
S.K. and S.L.; writing—original draft preparation, S.K.; writing—review and editing, S.L. and C.B.;
visualization, S.K.; supervision, C.B.; project administration, C.B.; funding acquisition, C.B. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the “Competency Development Program for Industry Special-
ists” of the Korean Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (MOTIE), operated by the Korea Institute
for Advancement of Technology (KIAT) (grant number: P0017120, HRD Program to Foster R&D
Specialist Parts for Eco-Friendly Vehicles (xEVs)).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2022, 15, 2219 16 of 16

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