MSW SEMESTER II

SOW 2 C 08: COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL

ACTION
MODULE 1
UNDERSTANDING COMMUNITY AND COMMUNITY DYNAMICS
1. CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY: SOCIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL WORK
PERSPECTIVES OF COMMUNITY-GEOGRAPHICAL AND
FUNCTIONAL COMMUNITTY
CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY
A community is a small or large social unit (a group of living things) who
have something in common, such as norms, religion, values, or identity.
Communities often share a sense of place that is situated in a given geographical
area (e.g., a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through
communication platforms. It is a social group sharing an environment, normally
with shared interests. In human communities, intent, belief, resources, preferences,
needs, risks and a number of other conditions may be present and common,
affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. Human
beings, like many other species, are essentially social beings, and naturally form
communities which often develop into more structured societies.
It can be defined by a group of people living in the same place or having a
particular characteristic in common. It is a group of people who share the same
things, such as: where they live, work and play. It is also a place where people solve
problems together. A community could be characterized by age group, ethnicity,
gender, religion, location or profession.
Objectives
The aims of the project are perused in this paper are listed below:
 To know the concept of community, ethnic community, occupational
community and higher and lower community.
 To know the role of community in Disaster Management.
 To gather knowledge about The significance of ethnic community in Disaster
Management.
Types of Community
A number of ways to categorize types of community have been proposed. One such
breakdown is as follows:
 Location-based Communities: range from the local neighbourhood, suburb,
village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a whole. These are
also called communities of place.
 Identity-based Communities: range from the local clique, sub-culture,
ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilization, or the global
community cultures of today. They may be included as communities of need
or identity, such as disabled persons or elderly people
 Organizationally based Communities: range from communities organized
informally around family or network-based guilds and associations to more
formal incorporated associations, political decision-making structures,
economic enterprises, or professional associations at a small, national or
international scale.
Community Social Work
Concept of community
 Community as a network or informal relationships between people connected
with each other by kinship, common interest, geographical proximity,
friendship, occupation or the giving and receiving of services or various
combinations of theses.
 The term community describes the nature of a particular series of connections
between individuals which binds them together into a group. The coherency
of the group will depend on the number and strength of these connections
between individuals.
 Talcott Parsons defined community as collectively the members of which
share a common territorial area as their base of operation for daily activities.
 According to Tonnies community is defined as an organic natural kind of
social group whose members are bound together by the sense of belonging,
created out of everyday contacts covering the whole range of human
activities. He has presented ideal-typical pictures of the forms of social
associations contrasting the solidarity nature of the social relations in the
community with the large scale and impersonal relations thought to
characterize industrializing societies.
 Kingsley Davis defined it as the smallest territorial group that can embrace
all aspects of social life
  Karl Mannheim community is any circle of people who live together and
belong together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular
interest only but a whole set of interests.
Some of the connections which bind people together into a community are
in two themes;
For sociologists:
A. A common geographical area
B. A common interest
C. Ethnic origin
D. Disability
E. Common purpose
F. consistency of interaction
G. common/shared values, beliefs and outlook
H. common perception of experience
Community as a Geographical Concept
According to Robert E Park and Ernest W. Burgess
‘Community is the term which is applied to societies and social groups where
they are considered from the point of view of the geographical distribution of the
individuals and institutions of which they are composed’.
Community as a Natural Local Area
 Mabel A Elliott and Francies E Merrill:
‘The community has two related aspects, the geographical and the psychological.
Geographically it may be considered as a contiguous distribution of people with
their social institutions…. Psychologically we may think of the community in terms
of the elements that combine to make it a dynamic and living entity.’
 Arthur E Morgan
‘A community is an association of individuals and families that plan and act in
concert as organized unit in meeting their common needs.’
The community as a geographical concept:
 Geographical distribution of the individual and institution
  The community as a natural local area characterized by equal stress on both
aspects
 Act together in order to provide for mutual protection and welfare
 Living in a contiguous territory
 Participation in collective life which gives unity to the population of a
locality.
 The community as a socially homogenous area characterized by
 group interaction
 It stresses on consensus, identification, a common way of life, shared
interests and values.
Elements of Community
1. Group of people
2. Definite locality
3. Community sentiment
4. Likeness
5. Permanency
6. Neutrality
7. Size
8. Wider ends
9. A Particular name
Community Sentiment
Three elements of community sentiment:
1. We feeling
2. Role feeling
3. Dependency feelings
Types of community
1. Geographic community
2. Community of interest
Functions of community
1. Production- distribution-consumption
2. Socialization
3. Social control
4. Social participation
5. Mutual support
Difference between community and society
 Population is one of the most essential characteristics of a community
irrespective of the consideration whether people have or do not have
conscious relation. Population is important but here the population is
conditioned by a feeling of oneness. Thus conscious relations are more
important than the mere population for a society.
 A community by nature is discrete as compared with society. By nature, and
character society is abstract.
 For community area or locality is very essential and that perhaps is the reason
that the community had a definite shape. Society is area less and shapeless
and for a society area is no consideration.
 A community has comparatively narrow scope of community sentiments and
as such it cannot have wide heterogeneity.
 A society has heterogeneity and because of its wide scope and field can
embrace people having different conflicts
 The scope of community is narrow than that of society because community
came much later than the society. Though the primitive people might not
have understood the importance of community but they realized that of the
society and lived in it.
 The society has much wider scope as compared with the community.
 In a community every effort is made to avoid differences or conflicts and to
bring likeness as nearly as possible because cooperation and conflicts cannot
exist in a community.
 In a society likeness and conflict can exist side by side and in fact the scope
of society is so vast that there is every possibility of adjustment.
 A community cannot be self-sufficient because of its limited scope and
nature. It is possible for a society to become self-sufficient.
Community Social Work
Community social work is a basic method of social work which starts from
problems affecting individual or groups, the responsibilities and resources of social
work departments and informal organizations, it seeks to support, enable and formal
and informal relationships (BARCLAY). Community social work is about
encouraging people to discover their resources and possibilities in order to work for
positive change in their community. People have the right to participate in decision
making process that affecting them. Social work with communities is a generalist
practice method that enables individuals and groups to achieve a more desirable
level of life satisfaction as well as more effective levels of adaptation.
Community practice approach
1. Social action
2. Social planning
3. Community development
The means and ends of community social work are not merely to provide people
with services and or resources, to make possible the process of discovering and
learning together by which communal life is created.
Nature of community social work
 It fights against poverty and social exclusion
 It aims to include service users as full and active citizen
 It challenges discrimination by race, disability, age, religion, gender and
sexual orientation.
 It is about people working together.
 It promotes participation in decision making and gives people more power.
 It works for prevent problems.
 It encourages people to learn skills and knowledge and confidence through
taking actions
 It supports joint work. Action can range from individual self-help to lobbying
and campaigning.
Elements of community social work
 Community
 Needs of community
 Institutions
 Representatives
 Process
1. a. community as people
b. community as social system
2. Felt needs
 Community needs assessments
 Needs/problems can be identified by understanding the community as a
whole.
 Particularly concerned with the needs of those who have been disadvantaged
or oppressed through poverty, discrimination on the basis of race, class,
gender, age or disability.
3. Formal and informal institutions have been working for fulfilment of needs of
community and providing services.
4. Community worker as community development worker and community
organizer work as representative. They work as guide, as enabler, as teacher, as
mediator etc
5. Social work process or community work process. By itself it cannot possibly
substitute for wider processes of economic, social, and political changes. But it has
the potential to contribute to such wider process of changes and in relation to the
development of more preventive and more participatory approaches to social work.
The process can promote more appropriate, more co-ordinated and more
democratically accountable approaches to economic and social planning, to meet
social needs.
Philosophy of community social work
 Community social work based on felt needs.
 Community social work based on assumptions that people want to be free
from poverty and pain.
 It is assumed that people wish to have freedom in controlling their own lives.
 Peoples value has given due consideration.
 Self-help is the base of community social work.
 People are the greatest resources.
 Community social work involves changes.
Task community workers
 Making contact with individuals, groups and organization.
 Developing a community profile, assessing community resources and needs.
 Developing a strategic analysis and planning aims, objectives and targets.
 Working productively with conflict, within and between groups and
organizations.
 Working with individuals, including counselling.
 Managing resources, including staff, time and budgets.
 Supporting group and organizations in obtaining resources.
 Monitoring and evaluating progress and the most effective uses of resources.
 Collaborating and negotiating with other agencies and professions.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND FUNCTIONAL COMMUNITY
A geographic community is one defined over a geographic space. Some type
of social interaction or common tie is usually included in this type of definition as
well (Poplin, 1979).
What makes a geographic community?
A geographic community can be made up of any combination of the concepts
listed above. A necessary condition for a geographic community is that it has a
geographic boundary.
1. Geographic boundaries: The big unknown is the spatial scope of the
location. It is the researcher’s job to define the extent of the location. We
discuss several different methods for measuring boundaries in Section 4. For
the moment, it will suffice to say that the type of measurement used is likely
to depend on the research question in mind. For example, a town planner
would probably be interested in the physical boundaries of a community such
as rivers, hills, or mountains, but a sociologist investigating social
interactions may be more interested in an individual’s perception of the
community boundaries.
2. Common ties: Common ties are the second important aspect of a geographic
community. As mentioned above common ties can take many different forms
such as shared experiences, attitudes, cultures, beliefs, and access to services
and resources. The common ties can help a researcher to define the
boundaries of a community. For example, if the local school is an important
tie for the community, then school districts may be an appropriate boundary.
3. Social interactions: Putnam (1995) describes social capital (social
interactions) as “features of social life—networks, norms, and trust—that
enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared
objectives”. Some authors differentiate between two types of social capital—
bonding and bridging. Bonding social capital tends to be inward-looking and
focuses on a particular group. Bridging social capital is outward-looking and
is generally made up of ‘weak’ ties that link people in different social spheres
(Putnam, 2000). The level of social interaction in a community will vary
across communities. Onyx and Bullen (2000) found that bonding capital was
greater in rural areas and bridging capital was greater in larger metropolitan
areas.
4. Interdependencies: An individual cannot hold social capital. Instead, it
arises between individuals. As a result, communities are interdependent. The
more social capital held in the community, the more interdependent that
community is likely to be. English and Zimlich (1997, p. 8) refer to
interdependence in a community as a “mutual satisfaction of needs”.
2. FUNCTIONAL COMMUNITY
CONCEPT OF FUNCTIONAL COMMUNITIES
 Generally, when you categorize a group of people (or any set of objects) you
can do so according to two different schemes-by categories or functions (Flynn
1985). With categorical groups you classify people according to statistical or
definitional characteristics. Examples of categorical groups include "teenagers" or
"families with incomes below the poverty line." With categorical groups, the groups
are defined by the analyst, and people are either in or out. Functional groups are
made up of people with similar behaviours or interactions. Functional groups
cannot be determined prior to the analysis, but are determined by the analysis.
CONCEPTS OF POWER AND AUTHORITY
Power in a community is the ability to affect the decision-making process and
the use of resources, both public and private, within a community.
Power in community
Power is simply the capacity to bring about change. Power appears in numerous
forms and in a variety of combinations. Power flows from many sources. The
money, votes, laws, information, expertise, prestige, group support, contacts,
charisma, communication channels, media, social role, access to rewards, position,
titles, ideas, verbal skill, ability to gratify important needs, monopoly of essential
resources, alliances, energy, conviction, courage, interpersonal skills, moral
convictions, etc. are some of the sources of power. The accumulation of power in a
specific area is called as a power centre. Power is also distributed.
Source of Power
 Positional power comes from organizational authority or position – often
overlooked by people with the power, rarely forgotten by those without it.
 Referred Power comes from connections to others (e.g., a staff member
without formal positional power but who has known the ED for years).
 Expert Power comes from wisdom, knowledge, experience & skills
(e.g., someone who is widely respected because of their skills as an
organizer).
 Ideological Power comes from an idea, vision or analysis. As Victor Hugo
said, “Nothing can withstand the power of an idea whose time has come.” It
can be the original idea of an individual, an ideal such as “democracy” or
“liberation,” or a developed ideology.
 Personal Power. The manifestation of an individual’s energy, vision, ability
to communicate, capacity to influence, emotional intelligence, psychological
savvy, etc.
  Collaborative Power. Our ability to join our energies in partnership with
others in pairs, teams, organizations, communities, coalitions, and
movements.
 Institutional Power economic, legal, and political power directly wielded by
institutions – whether a corporation, police department, or your own
organization. It exists apart from the individuals who work there at any one
time, i.e., brand, membership, skills, etc.
 Cultural Power: The cultural norms and conditioning regarding race, class,
sexual orientation, gender identification and age that accrue power and
privilege to the dominant group.
 Structural Power: Power covertly or implicitly exercised through the
dominant institutions of society.
Community Power Structure
Community power structure refers to the distribution of power at the local
community level. A power structure in a community is key leaders (power actors)
acting together to affect what gets done and how it gets done. However, the nature
of the relationships among the individual power actors can vary from one
community to another. Some communities have a power structure cantered on one
person who is surrounded by “lieutenants.” Other communities have a small, tightly
knit group – the power elite – that controls policy-making for the community.
Another structure is the “split community.” Examples include LDF and UDF,
labor-management, rural-urban, and others. The “power pool” involves a
combination of all three. Essentially, there is a “pool” of 10 to 25 people who are
the top community power actors. In some communities, tradition or elders are the
powerful members.
Finally, some culturally diverse communities base their power almost totally on
democratic principles and unanimity.
Powerlessness:
Powerlessness derives from a lack of decision-making power, the inability to
enact choices and exposure to the disrespectful treatment that results from
occupying a marginal status (Young 1990). Powerlessness is most likely to be
experienced when there is a sharp divide between those wielding power and
decision-making authority – like rehabilitation professionals – and those in
subordinate statuses, like patients (Barnes & Mercer 2003).
Empowerment
Empowerment aims to increase the power of the disadvantaged. It involves
giving power to individuals or groups, allowing them to take power into their own
hands and redistributing power from the ‘haves’ to the ‘have not’s (Ife, 1995).
Achieving Empowerment
The various strategies which can be adopted by the community organizer to
achieve the empowerment of the marginalized and disadvantaged groups
1) Policy and Planning
2) Social and political Action
3) Education and consciousness Raising
Cycle of empowerment

Barriers of empowerment:
In community organization, the people carry out decision-making. This
provides them with a sense of empowerment. Empowerment deals with providing
disadvantaged groups with a powerful instrument for articulating their demands and
preferences by awareness, decision-making capacity and to achieve their goal with
freedom. Community Organization results in empowerment of the people. But there
are some hindrances like fatalism, illiteracy, superstitions, and caste divisions etc.
Sometimes the vested interested groups may be a hindrance or barriers for
empowerment.
The Community dependence, long time effect of poverty, and wrong beliefs etc.,
act as barriers to empowerment.
3. LEADERSHIP IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION: CONCEPTS
AND TYPES OF LEADERSHIP, ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF
COMMUNITY LEADERS:
Definition
 According to Livingston – ‘Leadership is the ability to awaken the desire to
follow a common objective’.
 According to C.I. Bernard – ‘Leadership is the quality of behaviour of the
individuals whereby they guide people or their activities in organised efforts’.
 According to Bernard Keys and Thomas – ‘Leadership is the process of
influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically towards achieving
objectives’.
 Keith Davis, “Leadership is the process of encouraging and helping others to
work enthusiastically towards their objectives. Leadership must extract
cooperation and willingness of the individuals and groups to attain the
organisational objectives.
 George R. Terry, “Leadership is a relationship in which one person
influences others to work together willingly on related tasks to attain what the
leader desires.”
Concept of leadership
Leadership is a dynamic process, which deserves study. It is a relational
process involving interactions among leaders, members and sometimes outside
constituencies. Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and
willpower, you can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a
never-ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience. To inspire
your workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain things you must be,
know, and, do. These do not come naturally, but are acquired through continual
work and study. Good leaders are continually working and studying to improve
their leadership skills; they are NOT resting on their laurels. Leadership is a process
by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the
organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Leaders carry out
this process by applying their leadership attributes, such as – beliefs, values, ethics,
character, knowledge and skills.
Characteristics of Leadership:
1. There must be Followers: A leadership cannot exist without followers. If a
leader does not have followers, he cannot exercise his authority. Leadership
exists both in formal and informal organisations.
2. Working Relationship between Leader and Followers: There must be a
working relationship between the leader and his followers. It means that the
leader should present himself in a place where the work is actually going on.
Besides, the leader should be a dynamic person of the concerned group. If he
is not so, he cannot get things done.
 3. Personal Quality: The character and behaviour of a man influence the works
of others.
4. Reciprocal Relationship: Leadership kindles a reciprocal relationship
between the leader and his followers. A leader can influence his followers
and, in turn, the followers can influence the leader. The willingness of both
the leader and the followers is responsible for the influence and no
enforcement is adopted.
5. Community of Interests: There must be community of interests between the
leader and his followers. A leader has his own objectives. The followers have
their own objectives. They are moving in different directions in the absence
of community of interests. It is not advisable. It is the leader who should try
to reconcile the different objectives and compromise the individual interests
with organisation interests.
6. Guidance: A leader guides his followers to achieve the goals of the
organisation. A leader should take steps to motivate his followers for this
purpose.
7. Related to a Particular Situation: Leadership is applicable to a particular
situation at a given point of time. It varies from time to time.
8. Shared Function: Leadership is a shared function. A leader is also working
along with his followers to achieve the objectives of the organisation.
Besides, the leader shares his experience, ideas and views with his followers.
9. Power Relationship: A leader has powers to exercise over his followers. The
leader derives these powers from the organization hierarchy, superior know-
ledge, experience and the like.
Types of Leadership:
1. Transformational Leadership:
A transformational leader is one who navigates an organization toward
improvement by changing existing thoughts, procedures, and culture. Leading
through example, inspiration, and engagement, the transformational leader will seek
ways to get the best performance and potential out of each team member. It takes
courage to be a transformational leader, one who challenges old ways of doing
things in favour of better, more efficient, and more intuitive strategies. The top
qualities of a transformational leader are Innovative, Empathetic, and Motivational.
2. Democratic Leadership:
With democratic leadership, while organizational hierarchy may still exist,
influence, power and the ability to contribute to decisions may be widely distributed
across tiers and departments. Also sometimes called participative leadership,
democratic leadership requires collaborative energy, delegation of responsibilities,
and group-level decision making. This demands a leader who knows how to
cultivate participation, empower team members, and work directly alongside
organizational members at every level. With democratic leadership, while
organizational hierarchy may still exist, influence, power and the ability to
contribute to decisions may be widely distributed across tiers and departments. This
means the right leader will know when to act, when to authorize, how to mediate
conflict, and how best to synthesize the talents of team members. The top qualities
of a democratic leader: Actively Engaged, Supportive, Accountable.
3. Autocratic Leadership:
An autocratic leader holds singular authority in an organization. This is a
common leadership style in which all key decisions go through a top figure and in
which most members of the organization answer to a hierarchy that leads up to this
figure. While autocratic leadership is rarely very popular with employees, it’s the
preferred strategy in organizations where employees perform streamlined functions,
where control is more critical to success than creativity, and where there is scant
threshold for error. The autocratic leader prefers to take charge, and while he or she
may be receptive to input and feedback, this individual will make all final decisions
according to personal discretion. The top qualities of an autocratic leader:
Disciplined, Decisive, Confident
4. Laissez-Faire Leadership:
Laissez-faire leadership is a style in which organizational leaders take a hands-
off approach to decision-making and task-completion. This style of leadership gives
organizational members a wide latitude when it comes to managing projects,
solving problems, and resolving disagreements. In most instances, leadership
simply provides a clear set of expectations, the resources needed for job
completion, and accountability to the public, shareholders, or any other outside
interests. This style of leadership can be effective in select contexts, but it can be
challenging to motivate employees or establish accountability when implemented in
the wrong setting. The top qualities of a laissez-faire leader: Open-minded,
Trusting, and Communicative
5. Bureaucratic Leadership:
Bureaucratic leadership refers to organizational leadership through a highly
formalized set of processes, procedures, and structures. Here, rules, policies, and
hierarchies form a clear set of expectations as well as an explicit chain of command.
At each level of a bureaucracy, organizational members are beholden both to their
immediate superiors and to a larger ecosystem of rules and procedures.
Bureaucratic leaders lead by channelling established rules, enforcing existing
structures, and presiding over specific segments of the hierarchy. The top qualities
of a bureaucratic leader: Organized, Consistent, Focused.
6. Servant Leadership:
Servant leaders empower employees, interact directly with clients, and
recognize their organization’s role as part of a community. Servant leadership refers
to a decentralized style in which a leader satisfies the needs of stakeholders first. An
approach to leadership formed in contrast to the drive for power or material
acquisition, this style places the leader on the front lines of day-to-day operation.
From this vantage, the leader works directly with organizational members at every
level to make decisions. Servant leaders empower employees, interact directly with
clients, and recognize their organization’s role as part of a community. The top
qualities of a servant leader: Receptive, Persuasive, Encouraging
7. Transactional Leadership:
Transactional leadership succeeds best in a context of order, structure, and rigid
hierarchy. While it may sound similar in name to transformational leadership, it’s
almost exactly the opposite. Here, roles are clearly and strictly defined. The job of
leadership is to ensure individuals perform their roles correctly and effectively, and
that group performance produces positive outcomes. Often, a clear system of
penalties and rewards for performance is in place, including pay bonuses and
opportunities for upward mobility. A good transactional leader will use those
rewards and penalties to identify strengths and weed out weaknesses among
personnel. Transactional leaders may prize the status quo. Where change is needed,
a transactional leader will typically implement it within existing systems and
structures rather than through major structural transformation. The top qualities of a
transactional leader: Regimented, Focused, Efficient.
8. Situational Leadership:
Situational leadership refers less to one specific style of leadership and more to
the idea of leadership as an inherently adaptable responsibility. Situational
leadership remains highly flexible at all times, capable of adjusting strategies,
procedures, and vision according to an organization’s circumstances, demands, and
even to a shifting culture. The situational leader possesses the ability to adapt
strategy to changing dynamics. This calls for a leader with the emotional
intelligence to recognize organizational needs and the skill to act on those needs.
The result is a leader who guides an organization through transformation,
collaborates at the team-level with personnel and, where necessary, takes decisive,
unilateral action. The top qualities of a situational leader: Nimble, Adaptable, and
Versatile.
 9. Cross-Cultural Leadership:
Cross-cultural leadership acknowledges the increasingly global nature of
business. The levels of collaboration, competition, and partnership across
international borders have spiked due to web technology and the deconstruction of
global trade barriers. Cross- cultural leaders recognize that every country has
different business norms, leadership practices, and cultural realities. This type of
leader knows how to navigate these differences to unite culturally-diverse partners,
achieve unified goals, and create pathways to common ground. The cross-cultural
leader understands that diversity is a virtue and a resource rather than an obstacle.
The top qualities of a cross-cultural leader: Inclusive, Respectful, Versatile.
10.Charismatic Leadership:
The truly charismatic leader effectively creates a sense of shared purpose,
nurtures the passions of organizational members, and unites personnel behind a
single vision. Charismatic leadership depends significantly on the compelling
personality of the leader. This type of leader will inspire others through
commitment, conviction, and positive example. Charismatic leaders will usually
possess strong communication skills, the capacity for exceptional personal empathy,
and the strength of personality to positively define company culture. The truly
charismatic leader effectively creates a sense of shared purpose, nurtures the
passions of organizational members, and unites personnel behind a single vision.
This style of leadership is often particularly valuable in times of crisis. The top
qualities of a charismatic leader: Inspiring, Influential, personally invested.
Importance of Leadership:
1. Leaders Provide Task Support: Leaders support the followers by assembling the
organizational resources; and helping them accomplish their tasks in accordance
with standards of performance.
2. Psychological Support: Leaders not only help the followers in accomplishing the
organizational tasks; they also help them overcome various problems they confront
while performing these tasks. They create willingness in people to work with zeal
and enthusiasm. They make the followers realise that their work is important so that
they work with confidence towards task accomplishment.
3. Development of Individuals: Leaders build willingness, enthusiasm and
confidence in followers for accomplishment of their individual and organizational
goals. This results in their overall growth and development.
4. Building the Team Spirit: No individual can work alone. Leaders develop team
spirit amongst followers to work collectively and coordinate their activities with
organizational activities and goals. A leader works as captain of the team.
5. Motivation: Leaders motivate the employees to take up jobs that they otherwise
may not be willing to exercise.
6. Provides Feedback: When people work towards well-defined targets, they want
constant feedback of their performance, which helps in achieving their goals
effectively. Leaders provide them this feedback.
7. Helps in Introducing Change: Effective leaders can convince members about the
need and benefits of organizational change. The change process can, thus, be
smoothly carried out.
8. Maintain Discipline: Leadership is a powerful influence that enforces discipline
in the organization more than formal rules and regulations can. Members will be
committed and loyal to rules and regulations if their leaders have confidence in
them.
9. Affirming Ethical Values: Leadership derives from trust. Ethics affirms trust of
people (employees, customers, shareholders, suppliers, regulators and community)
in a leader. Thus, a leader needs to conform to ethical practices.
10. Empowering Others: A good leader leads by empowering others. It means
delegation of power. Today’s leader is not expected to retain all power with
himself, he gives autonomy and power to others. He has to diffuse his power. He
has to command power and respect for empowering others.
11. Reviewing the Norms: From time to time, a leader needs to review his mission
and vision statements along with clear norms and guidelines, taking into account
views and experiences of his subordinates, by interactive ways like organizing
workshops and discussions.
12. Setting the Ethical Example: The ultimate leadership responsibility is modelling
the behaviour of others. Employees constantly watch and learn from leaders. They
rightfully assume that it is okay to do whatever the leader does. Regardless of what
is written or said in the organization, leader’s behaviour is the performance standard
which employees generally follow.
Role and functions of community leaders
1. Maximize Individuals’ Strengths:
Community leaders often work with volunteers. They may be elected by members
of the community, assigned to work with a group, or they simply step forward and
want to help. In any case, community leaders rarely have the luxury of choosing
who they work with. It involves being able to identify the strengths and interests of
each person on your leadership team and maximize those talents and skills in a way
that keeps your team engaged in the work. Your fellow leaders need to feel that
they are making a meaningful contribution to the group, the community and the
work.
2. Balance the Needs of Your Leadership Group:
Some individuals may have a strong need for control. Others may have a deep need
to be appreciated for their time and service. As a community leader, your job is to
balance everyone’s needs, as well as keep your sights focused on the work that
needs to be done for the group to move forward.
3. Work as a Team:
Community leadership is slow work. Community leadership means that one person
does not do it all. It can be useful to teach your leadership team the difference
between efficiency and effectiveness. An efficient leader will take a task away from
someone who is not completing their work in a timely manner. An effective leader
will ensure that the person gets the support they need to complete the task.
Effectiveness often takes more time than efficiency. Community leadership is about
building relationships and working together. Being patient with one another and
supporting one another process builds capacity and relationships.
4. Mobilize Others:
Community leadership is part education, part inspiration, part motivation and part
mobilization. Mobilizing others is not about telling them what to do, barking orders
at them or dictating how things need to get done. It is about finding a balance
between what needs to be done, who can do it, who is willing and has time to do it,
assigning the work and then showing appreciation for others’ efforts. Learning to
have some fun while you work together is an important aspect of mobilizing and
motivating others.
5. Pitch In:
Community leaders are rarely have the luxury of focusing only on policy and
governance. This kind of work involves arriving early, staying late, cleaning up,
and generally rolling up your sleeves to pitch in.
6. Practice Stewardship:
This is about getting people to take responsibility for their physical space and
surroundings. This includes natural areas, structures and spaces. Stewardship means
working together to protect, preserve and take care of your community. This
involves renewing, repairing, rebuilding and constantly reviewing your physical
community to ensure that it is healthy, strong and well-maintained.
7. Be Accountable to the Community:
Above all else community leadership is about the people who live with you and
near you. The people who form the community are the beneficiaries, but also those
who whom you, as a leadership are accountable. Community leadership is not just
about policies, processes or procedures. More than anything, it is about people.
8. Think forward:
There is a saying in some Aboriginal communities about thinking five generations
ahead. Being a community leader means not only thinking for today, or even
tomorrow, but being able to make wise decisions that will still benefit the residents
long after the current leadership team is gone.
9. Recruit and Mentor New Leaders:
Speaking of the current leadership team being gone, community leaders often get so
caught up in all the work that needs to be done today, that they forget to think about
tomorrow. Planning for the future is an important aspect of community leadership.
Having a healthy base of volunteers and having individuals ready to take on new
positions are indicators of a healthy community. Community leadership work
means building a succession plan to keep the community strong as you move
forward into the future.
10. Walk Besides, Don’t Lead from Above:
In some models, leadership is a position in a hierarchy. Those at the top of the
hierarchy have the power and make the decisions. Community leadership is about
developing every person’s capacity for leadership, starting with self-leadership and
self-responsibility. So, the community leader does not take the prime parking spot
out of a sense of entitlement. There are no special privileges that put community
leaders above others who live in the community. Every member of the community
has responsibilities and rights. Community leaders walk beside others and listen to
them. A community leader’s job is not to take on all the problems of the world
themselves and fix everything, but rather to work together with everyone in the
community, to mobilize and guide others, to facilitate solutions and thing about the
long-term health of the community and its people.
 4. PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION: MEANING,
SIGNIFICANCE AND DIMENTION AND LEVEL OF
PARTICIPATION. CHALLENGES IN PARTICIPATION:
Community participation involves both theory and practice related to the
direct involvement of citizens or citizen action groups potentially affected by or
interested in a decision or action. Community is conceptualized as involving a
social group of any size whose members reside in a specific locality (often referred
to as community of place) or sharing a common heritage or set of values, for
example with a common cultural identity or with political bonds (often referred to
as community of interest). Participation is the act of engaging in and contributing to
the activities, processes, and outcomes of a group.
Active community participation in project planning and implementation may
improve project design through the use of local knowledge; increase project
acceptability; produce a more equitable distribution of benefits; promote local
resource mobilization; and help ensure project sustainability.
The Five Key Dimensions of Participation:
1. Normative:
The normative dimension encompasses the “organization’s expression of
values as it pertains to young people and their participation.” The normative
dimension is the organization’s “public declaration” of its values and purpose,
including the status, roles, and value of youth in that organization. Examples
include public expressions such as vision and mission statements, website content,
presentations, speeches, and written policies. Kudva and Driskell note that even
though the normative dimension is conceptual, it is nevertheless “seen, heard, and
felt.” In addition, the normative dimensions are, in many ways, “the most critical
spatial dimension for participation in organizational practice” because “without the
normative space of participation, there is little room for much else.” The normative
dimension, therefore, operates as a container for other dimensions: it creates the
philosophical space—the standards, norms, and expectations—that allow positive
youth participation and empowerment to take hold.
2. Structural:
The structural dimension encompasses an organization’s budget,
programming, staffing, and related priorities. As Kudva and Driskell point out,
“Without appropriate structures, normative declarations ring empty, and efforts
toward operationalizing participation can go adrift…. In other words, participation
doesn’t just happen. Someone has to facilitate it. Someone has to pay for it.
Someone should even be leading critical reflections on how to do it better.”
Examples of the structural factors that facilitate positive youth participation and
empowerment include “dedicated staff positions for youth outreach and facilitation;
resource allocations for youth training and youth-led program evaluations; and
projects that are specifically intended to be either youth-run or youth-directed.” If
the normative dimension creates the organization’s philosophical space, the
structural dimension creates the organization’s programmatic space—its policies,
priorities, and resource allocations.
3. Operational:
The operational dimension encompasses “the everyday practice of the
organization in action” and “the mechanisms by which young people have a
meaningful say in organizational decision making and management.” While the
operational dimension is “embedded within structural space,” the operational
factors are “concerned with actual decision-making practices rather than the
codified structures for them.
Kudva and Driskell provide an example: “While creation of a youth advisory board
defines a structural space for youth input, the actual ways in which the advisory
board works—its operational dimension—shapes its effectiveness as a space of
participation.” If the structural dimension creates the organization’s programmatic
space, the operational dimension creates the organization’s decision-making
space—it’s day-to-day process for executing on philosophical and structural
priorities.
4. Physical:
The physical dimension encompasses “the provision of an actual space (be it a
separate room, building, outdoor area, or even a cubicle) that young people can
claim as their own, where they can work independently as well as in collaboration
with adults.” Kudva and Driskell note, however, that “while the physical space for
young people’s participation does not require a youth-only zone, it does call for a
designated territory in which young people are clearly in-charge, and where they
can ‘‘hang out’’ on their own terms.” If the operational dimension creates the
organization’s decision-making space, the physical dimension creates physical
space in which youth participation actually occurs. As the authors note, “While
participatory practice with young people may exist without physical space, its
absence typically undercuts the form and substance their participation might
otherwise take.”
5. Attitudinal:
The attitudinal dimension encompasses “the multiform interactions and
identities rooted in interpersonal relations,” the “dynamics of interactions between
adults and young people as well as between young people themselves,” and the
“young people’s own expectations of their right to participate, and their ability and
commitment to claim that right.” Unlike the other four dimensions, which are
nested in the model—i.e., the normative circumscribes and shapes the structural,
the structural circumscribes and shapes the operational, and so on—the attitudinal
dimension transects all the dimensions.
According to Kudva and Driskell, “Attitudinal space, buffeted by individual
attitudes and personalities, is the most fluid and immeasurable space of
participation, but also the most commonly identified barrier to meaningful
participation.” While the attitudinal dimension is expressed through the culture of
an organization—how youth are generally treated, supported, or empowered, for
example—attitudinal influences are also expressed in interpersonal adult-adult,
adult-youth, and youth-youth interactions. For example, while an organizational
culture may generally present as inclusive, supportive, and empowering to youth,
it’s possible for some problematic adult-youth relationships, or negative peer-to-
peer interactions, to subvert the general positivity of the organizational culture, and
therefore become barriers to participation.
Levels of Participation
Participation suggests some degree of involvement in an activity or an
organisation. There are however different levels of involvement, with some people
being at the centre of activity and decision making whilst others take a back seat
role. The level of participation therefore relates to how much power or influence
participants actually have.
ARSTEIN’S LADDER OF CITIZEN PARTICIPATION – is arranged so that each
rung represents the degree of power the citizen holds.
At the top rungs of the ladder community participation is about empowering
citizens, and citizens have increasing decision-making clout the further up the
ladder you go. At these levels citizen’s opinions are taken into account and acted
upon, they have a direct say in developing alternatives and identifying preferred
solutions and, at the top of the ladder, they are in a position to initiate or make
decisions themselves.
Key features include partnership and collaboration between communities (or
service users) and service providers at each stage of decision making to ensure that
concerns and aspirations are consistently understood and considered.
At these levels participants have some involvement in an organisation or
community but others still make the final decisions. When participation is restricted
to these levels citizens may indeed be heard, but they lack the power to ensure that
their views will be listened to by the decision makers. There is a risk that this
involvement may be tokenistic, or designed to placate communities, as while they
may be invited to give their opinions or advise, the final decision is still held by
those who hold decision making power. The bottom rungs are essentially non-
participation as, although people may be members of an organisation or community,
their involvement is passive and they have no real say or influence in how it
operates. Members are expected to go along with the decisions of others and are
usually powerless to make changes themselves.

5 Principal Challenges of Public Participation

Implementing the public participation process is vital in a democratic society
and fulfil public needs. However, public participation is sometimes constrained by
many factors. Exploring the reasons behind the obstruction of the implementation
of the public participation process is an important approach to the achievement of
effective participation and better results. We analyse the internal and external
factors that impede public engagement as follows.
1. Costly:
A major internal challenge in public participation is inadequate financial
resources and human resources. Involving the public in decision-making is time-
consuming and costly in terms of money and energy. Starting from the planning
process, it needs a lot of time to establish a meaning process that can effectively
engage people and their thoughts. Administrators already have a heavy workload,
so it is challenging for them to spend more time and energy on public engagement.
In addition, the arrangement of forums, workshops or public meetings requires
adequate funds, long preparation time, and enough staff. Comparing with the
benefits, the transaction cost may be even higher. Therefore, conducting a
participation project with a low cost is challenging.
2. Lack of skilled facilitator:
Some administrators who organise the public engagement process are not
equipped with engagement skills. They may also have less experience in public
participation. Skilled practitioners are critical to the success of participation as they
can facilitate the process, maintain a good relationship with citizens, and generate
better results. Although some agencies offer external service, courses or workshops
to train the administrators about public participation, they are often expensive and
do not take the context into consideration. In fact, a simplified engagement process
that the practitioner can easily practice is more practical and beneficial.
3. Low efficiency:
Participating in public meetings is usually not a priority for people when
competing with work, household or other daily obligations. Less time is available
after completing daily chores, which makes the engagement more difficult.
Furthermore, traditional public engagement approaches generally take a longer time
with less satisfying results, leading to an even lower rate of participation. Thus,
increasing the efficiency of the participation approaches without compromising the
outcomes is an urgent need.
4. Not interested in participation:
Another external factor of the low participation level is that the public shows
less interest in public matters. How to motivate the citizens, stimulate their interests,
and obtain meaningful inputs are the questions that practitioners need to answer. To
increase the participation level, we can provide multiple ways and opportunities to
them. For example, encouraging the public to participate in public issues related to
their daily life or offering rewards for participation are the possible solutions.
5. Language barrier:
In the context where it has a variety of nationalities, culture or language
barrier is always a problem. People who do not master the local language are often
excluded from public meetings simply due to the language barrier. Especially in an
international community, language is the main reason for excluding immigrants and
foreigners as one of the marginalised groups.

MODULE-2
CONCEPTS OF COMMUNITY: COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION,
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Community living has been the culture of human being and hence, it has led
and faced numerous problems due to various social changes. Community work as a
method, process and intervention, it has gained the attention of professionals who
work for the development of communities at different levels. Government and
corporate has taken this concept for implementing their projects and ensure
sustainable development. This unit highlights the concept and history of community
work.
Meaning and Definition of Community
The word ‘community’ is derived from the Old French ‘comunete ’,that
means the things held in common and in more clear term it is called as fellowship
or organized society. It also indicates a large group living in close proximity. The
term ‘Community’ refers to an aggregation of individuals and families living
together and shares common values in a particular geographical area, share
government and often have a common cultural and historical heritage. Intent, belief,
preferences, resources, needs and risks are the conditions that affect the identity of
the community and the degree of cohesiveness.
Definition:
Murray G. Ross (1967) defines community organisation as a “process by
which a community identifies its needs or objectives, gives priority to them,
develops confidence and will to work at them, finds resources (internal and
external) to deal with them, and in doing so, extends and develops cooperative and
collaborative attitudes and practices in the community”.
Types of Community
1. Community based on Location: It can be classified into rural, urban and tribal
communities, which range from the local neighbourhood, suburb, village, town or
city, region, nation as a whole. It also includes a municipality which is an
administrative local area composed of a clearly defined territory and community
referring to a town or village.
2. Community based on Organization: These communities are informally organized
around family or network based guilds and associations and associations to more
formal incorporated associations, political decision making structures, economic
enterprises or professional associations at a small, national or international scale. It
can also be called as intentional community.
3. Community based on occupation: Communities can be classified by their
occupation such as Agricultural Community, fishermen community, washer men
community, etc.
4. Community based on caste: Community can be classified in to many types based
on caste such as Chettiar community, Vanniar Community, Nadar Community.
These classifications are made based on the birth.
5. Community based on Identity: It rage from local clique, sub-culture, ethnic
group, religious, multicultural, pluralistic civilization, or the global community
cultures of today, which may be included as communities of need or identity, such
as differently abled persons or frail aged people. It would have more defined and
formalized guidelines for their group living.
6. Community based on class: The living style including the status, wealth, power
and position can be the indicators to classify communities as upper class, middle
class and lower class.
7. Community Based on Ideology: Based on the faith and practices, the
communities can be classified as Islamic community, Christian Community, Hindu
Community, communist community, socialist community, etc.
8. Community based on composition/ combination: Communities can be classified
into Homogeneous community and Heterogeneous community.
9. Community based on developmental Index: Communities can be classified as
developed or undeveloped community, which is mostly done on the indexes created
to assess the economical, health and education aspects of the people living in a
geographical location. The main objective of studying the history of community
organization is to sensitize us to the changes occurred over a period of time, the
approaches, strategies evolved to approach changes in the communities with
problematic environment.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Definitions
Community Development: a process whereby the efforts of Government are
united with those of the people to improve the social, cultural, and economic
conditions in communities Community Development “Community development is
the participation of people in a mutual learning experience involving themselves,
their local resources, external change agents, and outside resources. People cannot
be developed. They can only develop themselves by participating in activities
which affect their well-being. People are not being developed when they are herded
like animals into new ventures.” Julius Nyerere, 1968
United nation’s report states that: “Community Development is the process
designed to create conditions of economic and social progress for whole of
community development with its active participation and fullest possible reliance
on community initiative.”
Background & concept of Community Development
 Community Development seeks to empower individuals and groups of
people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change within
their communities. These skills are often created through the formation of
large social groups working for a common agenda.
 It is a broad term given to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved
citizens and professionals to improve various aspects of communities,
typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities.
 Community development is a process where community members come
together to take collective action and generate solutions to common
problems.
 Community development is a process where community members come
together to take collective action and generate solutions to common
problems. Community wellbeing (economic, social, environmental and
cultural) often evolves from this type of collective action being taken at a
grassroots level.
Community development is a grassroots process by which communities:
Become more responsible
Organize and plan together
Develop healthy lifestyle options
Empower themselves
Reduce poverty and suffering
Create employment and economic opportunities
Achieve social, economic, cultural and environmental goals
The community development process takes charge of the conditions and factors
that influence a community and changes the quality of life of its members.
Community development is a tool for managing change but it is not:
A quick fix or a short-term response to a specific issue within a community;
A process that seeks to exclude community members from participating; or
An initiative that occurs in isolation from other related community activities.
Approaches to Community Development
Community Capacity building
 Social capital
 Nonviolent direct action
 Economic development
 Community economic development
 Sustainable development
 Community-driven development (CDD)
 Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD)
 Faith-based community development;
 Community-based participatory research (CBPR)
 Community organizing
 Participatory planning
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

 India’s community is dependent on village communities

 Emphasis on the habits and attitudes of people.
 Active involvement of people on group work and community organization
methods.
Evolution of Community Practice in the West And In India
Introduction
Community organization is one of the primary methods of social work. It deals
with intervention in the communities to solve the community problems. Community
organization has been practiced as a method of social work in the western countries;
especially in England and USA. Community organization is a process and is all
about solving the present-day problems of common interests by way of adopting
democratic principles and people’s participation. People have used this method in
the past and have attained desired results. Thus, it is important to understand the
past, draw lessons from it and develop and experiment new models and methods
required to work with community.
Philosophy of community organization
 The fundamental aspect of the community organizations is the principle of
“Co- operative spirit & quot;
 Community organization recognizes the spirit of democratic values and
principles.
 Organizing is about empowering.
 The community organization recognizes the power of individual.
 Coordination. It is concerned with the adjustments and inter- relations of the
forces in the community life for a common welfare.
 Community organization is therefore, is a continuous process in which
adjustments are made and remade to keep pace with the changing conditions
of community life.
History of Community Organization in USA
 Wherever people have lived together, some form of organizations has
emerged.
 These informal associations of people always tried to do well to the people in
need and protect the rights of the society.
 Formal organizations which were set up for the welfare of the community.
 The first efforts at community organization for social welfare were initiated
in England to overcome the acute problem of poverty, which led to beggary.
 The first effort of its kind was the Elizabethan poor law (1601) in England,
which was set up to provide services to the needy.
 Another important landmark in the history of community organization is the
formation of London Society of organizing charitable relief and repressing
mendicancy and the Origin of the settlement house Movement in England
during 1880.
 These movements had a major impact in the United States of America.
 In 1880 the Charities organization was set up to put rational order in the area
of charity and relief.
 The major community organization activities in the United States could be
classified in to three periods:
 The Charity organization period. 1870-1917
 The rise of Federation 1917 to 1935
 Period of Expansion and Professional Development 1935 to present time
 1. The Charity organization period. 1870-1917
This period is the beginnings in social welfare in USA. The first citywide
(COS) Charity organization Society was established in the Buffalo in 1877 in USA.
This movement was started with the influence of London Charity organization
established in 1869. In USA, Rev.S.H.Gurteen, an English priest who had an
association with London Charity association and had moved to Baffalo in 1873
gave the leadership to this movement within a short span of six years the COS had
reached to more than 25 American cities.
 COS also took initiatives in promoting co-operation among the various
welfare agencies.
 From this movement of charity organization emerged many other such
service-oriented organizations i.e. Social service exchange, Community
welfare councils, councils of social agencies.
2. The rise of Federation 1917 to 1935
In this period there was a growth and development of chests and councils. It
started with the rise of war chests in 1917 and ended with the enactment of social
security act, which set the stage for development of the public welfare programs in
1935.
 A large number of chests and councils came up after world war1.
 The American Association for Community Organization was organized in
1918 as the national agency for chests and councils and it later became
known as community chests and councils of (CCC) America.
 The Cincinnati Public Health Federation, established in 1917 was the first
independent health council in American City. The American Association of
social workers organized in 1921, the first general professional organizations,
set up its training for the social workers and others who specialized in
community organization.
 A community chest is a voluntary welfare agency, co-operative organization
of citizens and welfare agencies, which is the powerful local force for
community welfare origination that handles large funds.
It has two functions.
1. It raises funds through a community -wide appeal and distributes them according
to a systematic budget procedure.
2. It promotes co-operative planning. Co-ordination and administration of the
community’s social welfare.
3. Period of Expansion and professional Development
1935 To Present Time.
 In this period there were greater use of the community organization process
in the field of public welfare.
 Establishment of Federal Security Agency where the maximized involvement
of the Government in welfare programs.
 In 1946 the agency was strengthened and re-organized following which in
1953 Department of Health, education and Welfare was established.
 Another important factor of the period is about the professional development
that took place.
Important Professional Developments
 The National Conference of Social work in 1938-39 undertook a study on
community organization, which later publicized the nature of " Generic
Community welfare organization ".
 Based on this, another study took place in 1940, but due to America
involvement in World War II an active program could not take off.
 In 1946, at the National conference of social work in Buffalo, the Association
of the study of community organization (ASCO) was organized.
 The main objective was to improve the professional practice organization for
social welfare. In 1955, ASCO merged with six other professional
organizations to form the National Association of social workers.
 Community organization has been recognized as integral and important
aspect of social work education in the American Association of Schools of
social work education.
 At present there is an active committee of Council on social work education
involved in the production of teaching materials in community organization.
 The first contemporary textbook on community organization titled "
Community Organization for social welfare " published in 1945 has
been written by Wayne Mc Milen’s.
 In the time World War II, the needs were very special and crucial.
 During this time many councils and community war services came to the
forefront. Among them (USO) united service organization is of prime
importance that served the needs of the military personnel and defense
communities.
 Immense increase in the volunteer service i.e. defense council, American Red
Cross and USO which coordinated and recruited the volunteers.
  During the war time the growth of closer relationship between labor and
social work, which is considered as great significance to community
origination.
 After the World War II Some developments were very specific to community
organization area:
 The rehabilitation of the physically and mentally challenged
 Mental health planning
 Problems of the aging
 Prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency.
 In order to address these issues, separate bodies were set up and the entry of
international agencies in the field of community organization.
 The present situation in community organization is the emergence of the new
community development programs, which aims at providing, services to the
less developed areas.
 The present agenda is on working with the whole community and a greater
emphasis on self -help.

Community Organisation in U.K

Baldock (1974) has summed up the historical development in U.K.

1. The first Phase: - 1880-1920:
 During this period the community work was mainly seen as a method of
social work.
 Process of helping the individuals to enhance their social adjustments.
 It acted as major player to co-ordinate the work of voluntary agencies.
2. The second phase: - 1920-1950:
 The emergence of new ways of dealing with social issues and problems.
 The community organization was closely associated with central and state
Govt’s program for urban development.
 The important development in this period was its association with community
association movement.
3. The third phase 1950 onwards:
 Professional development of social work.
 Most of the educators and planners tried to analyze the shortcomings in the
existing system.
 Social workers sought for a professional identity.
4. The fourth phase:
 It is a period that has marked the involvement of the community action and it
questioned the very relationship of the community work and social work.
  It was thus seen as period of radical social movement and we could see the
conflicts of community with authority.
 The association of social workers and the community were de-
professionalized during this period.
 During this period the conflictual strategies that were introduced in the
community work, although even now there is no consensus on this issue.
History Of Community Organization Inindia
 Community organization has its roots in the Charity organizations in the
United States. They realized the need of the people and tied to organize the
people to coordinate their work.
 The main activities were social welfare, raising funds, seeking enactment for
the social legislation and co-ordination of welfare activities. The spirit behind
all these activities was charity
 In India, the very concept of charity is deep rooted in the religious
philosophy. Even before the commencement of the social work education in
India in 1937, the community work was in place.

1. First phase from 1937 to 1952:

The community work was in a dormant stage. During this period the social
work was in its infancy and not many were employed in the community settings.
There were hardly any jobs that provided an opening for community organization.
Professionals preferred to work in casework settings.
In 1952 the community development project was launched in India and with
this we find the emergence of a new era of community work.
Basic objective of community development in India
To awaken the rural people of their needs
Instilling in them a sense of ambition for better life
Making them aware of their right and power to find a solution for their
problems
According to Mukerji (1961) community development can be divided in to two
process:
1. Extension education
2. Community organization.
Extension education was expected to improve the quality of human beings by
improving his/her knowledge and skills.
 By community organization Mukerji had in mind the setting up of three
institutions in the village.
 Village Panchayat
 The village co-operative
 The village schools
2. 1970 onwards:

New trend in the community work practice.

 The social workers expanded their scope and operational area from their
traditional approach of casework to other developments fields.
 The NGO’s and voluntary organization adopted a community approach.
 This shift has in-fact led to the use of process of community work. By and
large the community work has remained welfare -oriented.
 The current phase of community work in India is experiencing a growing
dissatisfaction with its own practice or rather the outcome of its practice.
 So, efforts are on to create alternate ways of working with communities.
 In-spite of these, the professionals are involved in a variety of projects in
both rural and urban areas, to promote better living for the community.
 Another trend in the community work is the involvement of the Business
houses in promoting welfare in their neighbourhood. This is commonly
known as CSR.
 Some of the multinational companies too have joined in this community
work project. This trend has attracted many professionals in this field.
 The main objective of community development is to develop village
communities by methods, which will stimulate, encourage and help villagers
themselves to do work necessary to accomplish the desired goals.
 The changes conceived and promoted should have the involvement of the
people and should be acceptable to them and put in to practice by them.
Conclusion
We can learn a lot from the history. The strategies adopted in the past
provide us concrete lessons on policies and approach allowing each generation to
build on the knowledge of its ancestors. It is all about the problems the people
experienced and the solution they achieved. In short, history sensitizes us to the
problems and possibilities of change, provides concrete advice for the present-
day action, and sustain our action with the hope and pride that comes from
learning of past experience. Therefore, the study of the History of community
organization becomes essential for a social worker.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

 Community organization for social welfare is concerned with people and their
needs. Its objectives are to enrich human life by bringing about and
maintaining a progressively more effective adjustment between social welfare
resources and social welfare needs.
 The community is the primary client in community organization for social
welfare.
 It is an axiom in community organization that the community is to be
understood and accepted as it is and where it is. Understanding the climate in
which community organization process is taking place is essential if seeds of
that process are to bear fruit.
 All the people of the community are concerned in its health and welfare
services representation of all interests and elements in the population and their
full and meaningful participation are essential objectives in community
organization.
 The fact of ever-changing human needs and the reality of relationship between
and among people and groups are the dynamic in the community organization
process.
 Interdependence of all threads in the social welfare fabric of organization is a
fundamental truth.
 Community organization for social welfare as a process is a part of generic
social work. Knowledge of its methods and skill in their application will
enhance the potentialities for growth and development of any community
effort to meet human needs.

1. Emphasis Human Rights

Human rights are inherent to all human beings, regarding of race, sex,
nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. Human rights
include the right includes right to life and liberty , freedom from slavery and
torture , freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, and
many more. Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination.
 International human rights law
 Universal declaration of human rights
 Economic social cultural law
 The civil and political right
 UN and high commissioner for human rights
2. Multiculturalism
"Multiculturalism" is the co-existence of diverse cultures, where culture
includes racial, religious, or cultural groups and is manifested in customary
 behaviours, cultural assumptions and values, patterns of thinking, and
communicative styles.
Multiculturalism as an ideology principally values:
 Politics of recognition
 Culture and identity
 Minority rights
 Diversity
 Multiculturalism may well be the successor to the nationalism of the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
 Multiculturalism could prove to be an unstoppable force inthe twenty-first
century and beyond.
 Multiculturalism might prove however to have its limitations,and become
unfashionable
 Multiculturalism seeks the inclusion of the views and contributions of diverse
members of society while maintaining respect for their differences and
withholding the demand for their assimilation into the dominant culture.
3. Diversity
The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and respect. It means
understanding that each individual is unique, and recognizing our individual
differences. These can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political
beliefs, or other ideologies.
4. Pluralism
 Pluralism refers to a basic quality of modern societies, where a wide range of
religious and political beliefs – diversity – is accepted and where the ideal
societies envisaged by different political parties may be incompatible with
each other.
 Pluralism as a political philosophy is there cognition and affirmation of
diversity within a political body, which permits the peaceful coexistence of
different interests, convictions, and lifestyles
 Pluralism is a belief in difference – a philosophy supporting diversity,
religious tolerance, and multiculturalism. Pluralism has always been
controversial, as nearly all societies experience a tension between diversity
and homogeneity, which can both give benefits and create problems for a
society.
  Most of the time, when people talk about pluralism they’re talking about
religious pluralism, or the idea of different religions thriving alongside one
another in a single society. This is not the only form of pluralism, just the
most common usage of the word.
5. Social Justice:
Social justice is the relation of balance between individuals and society
measured by comparing distribution of wealth differences, from personal
liberties to fair privilege opportunities. In Western as well as in older Asian
cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of
ensuring that individuals fulfil their societal roles and receive what was their due
from society.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE RELEVANT TO COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

SYSTEMS THEORY
Systems theory is a conceptual framework based on the principle that the
component parts of a system can best be understood in the context of the
relationships with each other and with other systems, rather than in isolation.

 Systems theory states that behaviour is influenced by a variety of factors

that work together as a system.
 A person’s parents, friends, school, economic class, home environment
and other factors all influence how a person think and act.
 Seeking to help correct missing or ineffective parts of that system can
have a positive impact on behaviour.
 Generally systems theory is concerned with the structure of complex
system, with a special emphasis about how parts relate to each other and
to whole system.
 Systems theory also enables us to understand the components and the
dynamics of client systems in order to interpret problems and develop
balanced intervention strategies, with the goal of enhancing the
‘goodness of fit’ between individuals and their environment.

Assumptions of Systems Theory

 It focuses that, whole is greater than the sum of parts.
 Changing one part of the system leads to changes in the other parts.
 Families become organized and developed overtime.
  Individuals dysfunction is emotional in origin manifested in relationship
problem.
Advantages of the Systems Theory
 It focuses on the environment and how changes can impact the organization.
 Broadens the theoretical aspects for viewing the behaviour of organizations.
 It is designed to deal with complex tasks.
 It aims in meaningful analysis of problems and their management.
Specific Social Systems Theories Used In Social Work
Specific Social work practice theories based on systems theory have emerged
to help social workers, to understand and address individual and social problems;

1. Family systems theory

Developed by Dr. Murray Bowen in 1946. Family systems theory views the
family as a complex system with its own component parts and feedback
loops.

2. The life model

It was developed by Carel.E. Germain and Alex Gitterman in 1980. The life
model requires the practitioner to examine a person’s fit with their environment and
how they adapt to and cope with limitations and toxicity in one’s environment.
3. The socio-Ecological model
Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1979. This model looks at how multiple
social systems and levels of the social environments (individual, micro, meso, exo,
and macro systems) impact individuals experiences and behaviours.
Applied Systems Theory
Social workers employ systems theory in order to understand the dynamics
interrelations between individuals, families, institutions, and society. They want to
identify how a system functions and what aspects of that system have a negative
impact on people. Systems theory looks at the factors that influence behaviour
including family, friends, school, and life atmosphere. Social workers applying this
theory look to fix or improve the parts of the individual’s system that doesn’t work.
 LEARNING THEORY
The component processes underlying observational learning are: (1)
Attention, including modelled events (distinctiveness, affective valence,
complexity, prevalence, functional value)and observer characteristics (sensory
capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention,
including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor
rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation
of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external,
vicarious and self-reinforcement. Because it encompasses attention, memory and
motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioural
frameworks. Bandura’s theory improves upon the strictly behavioural interpretation
of modelling provided by Miller & Dollard(1941). Bandura’s work is related
to the theories of Vygotsky and Lave which also emphasize the central role of
social learning.
Example
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are
television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or
using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of
attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as
attention or motivation), we may model the behaviour shown in the commercial and
buy the product being advertised.
Principles
 The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing
and rehearsing the modelled behaviour symbolically and then enacting it
overtly. Coding modelled behaviour into words, labels or images results in
better retention than simply observing.
 Individuals are more likely to adopt a modelled behaviour if it results in
outcomes they value.
 Individuals are more likely to adopt a modelled behaviour if the model is
similar to the observer and has admired status and the behaviour has
functional value.
4 Theories of Learning
4 Theories of learning are Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning,
Cognitive Theory, and Social Learning Theory. Learning is the individual growth of
the person as a result of cooperative interaction with others. It is the advancement of
understanding that enables the learner to function better in their environment,
improve and adapt behaviours, create and maintain healthy relationships, and
achieve personal success. Learning has taken a place if an individual behaves,
reacts, and responds taken from others as a result of experiences change in
behaviour or formerly behaves.
(a) Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such as response. It is
the process of learning to associate a particular thing in our environment with a
prediction of what will happen next. Classical conditioning, the association of such
an event with another desired event resulting in behaviour, is one of the easiest to
understand processes of learning. When we think of the classical conditioning, the
first name that comes to our mind is Ivan Pavlov, the Russian psychologist.
The normal stimulus for a flow of saliva is the taste of food. But often the
mouth waters at the mere sight of luscious peach, on hearing it described or even
thinking about it. Thus, one situation is substituted for another to elicit behaviour.
This is called conditioning. In the case of classical conditioning, a simple surgical
procedure allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by a
dog. When Pavlov presented one dog with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a
noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat
and merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate.
In classical conditioning, learning involves a conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus. Here, the meat was unconditioned stimulus; it invariably
caused the dog to react in a specific way. The reaction that took place whenever the
unconditioned stimulus occurred was called the unconditioned response. Here, the
bell was a conditioned stimulus. When the bell was paired with the meat, it
eventually produced a response when presented alone. This is a conditioned
response.
(b) Operant conditioning
The second type of conditioning is called operant conditioning. Here, we
learn that a particular behaviour is usually followed by a reward or punishment.
Operant conditioning argues that one’s behaviour will depend on different
situations. People will repeatedly behave in a specific way from where they will get
benefits. On the other hand, they will try to avoid behaviour from where they will
get nothing. Skinner argued that creating pleasing consequences to specific forms of
behaviour would increase the frequency of that behaviour. In one famous
experiment displaying operant learning, the psychologist B.F. Skinner trained rats
to press a lever to get food. In this experiment, a hungry rat placed in a box
containing a lever attached to some concealed food. In this process, it happened to
press the lever, and the food dropped into the box. The dropping of food-reinforced
the response of pressing the lever. After repeating the process of pressing the lever
followed by dropping off food many times, the rat learned to press the lever for
food. People will most likely engage in desired behaviours if they are positively
reinforced for doing so. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the
desired response. Also, behaviour that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely
to be repeated you worked hard and found that you have done this successfully.
(c) Cognitive Theory
Cognition refers to an individual’s thoughts, knowledge of interpretations,
understandings, or ideas about himself, and his environment. This is a process of
learning through active and constructive thought processes, such as a practice or
using our memory. One example might be that you were taught how to tell time by
looking at a clock. Someone taught you the meaning of the big hand and little hand,
and you might have had to practice telling the time when you were first learning it.
This process of learning was entirely inside your mind and didn’t involve any
physical motions or behaviours. It was all cognitive, meaning an internal thought
process. The theory has been used to explain mental processes as they are
influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which eventually bring about
learning in an individual. Cognitive learning theory implies that the different
processes concerning learning can be explained by analyzing the mental processes
first. It imagines that with effective cognitive processes, learning is easier and new
information can be stored in the memory for a long time.
(d) Social Learning Theory
The social learning theory also called observational learning, stresses the
ability of an” individual to learn by observing what happens to other people and just
by being told about something. One can learn things by observing models, parents,
teachers, peers, motion pictures, TV artists, bosses, and others. Many patterns of
behaviour are learned by watching the behaviours of others and observing its
consequences for them. In this theory, it is said that the influence of models is the
central issue.4 processes have been found to determine the influence that a model
will have on an individual.
These processes are:
1. Attention process
People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical
features. If the learner is not attentive they would not able to learn anything. We
tend to be most influenced by attractive models, repeatedly available, which we
think is important, or we see as similar to us.
 2. Retention process
A model’s influence depends on how well the individuals remember the
models’ actions after the model is no longer readily available.
3. Motor reproduction process
After a person has seen a new behaviour by observing the model, the
watching must be converted to doing. It involves recall the model’s behaviours and
performing own actions and matching them with those of the model. This process
then demonstrates that the individual can perform the modelled activities.
4. Reinforcement process:
Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modelled behaviour if positive
incentives or rewards are provided. Behaviour that is positively reinforced is given
more attention, learned better and performed more often. At last, we can say that
social learning theory is a function of consequences. It also acknowledges the
existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning. In
this case, a person who wants to learn should identify the target behaviour and
select the appropriate model and modelling medium. Then he/she should create a
favourable learning environment and observe the model. Here the learners will try
to remember and use practically the observed behaviour if there is a positive
reinforcement is related to this behaviour.
Steps of Learning Theory
1. Attention: The individual needs to pay attention to the behaviour and its
consequences and form a mental representation of the behaviour. For
behaviour to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many
behaviours on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention
is therefore extremely important in whether a behaviour influences others
imitating it.
2. Retention: How well the behaviour is remembered. The behaviour may be
noticed but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation.
It is important therefore that a memory of the behavior is formed to be
performed later by the observer. Much of social learning is not immediate, so
this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the behavior is
reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has
just demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like
to be able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our
physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the
behavior, we cannot. This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate
 it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk
watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one,
but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it.
4. Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment
that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived
rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior
will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious
reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they
will not imitate the behavior.

CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theory has been used to explain a wide range of social phenomena,
including wars, revolutions, poverty, discrimination, and domestic violence. It
ascribes most of the fundamental developments in human history, such as
democracy and civil rights, to capitalistic attempts to control the masses (as
opposed to a desire for social order). Central tenets of conflict theory are the
concepts of social inequality, the division of resources, and the conflicts that exist
between different socioeconomic classes.
Many types of societal conflicts throughout history can be explained using
the central tenets of conflict theory. Some theorists, including Marx, believe that
societal conflict is the force that ultimately drives change and development in
society. Marx’s version of conflict theory focused on the conflict between two
primary classes. Each class consists of a group of people bound by mutual interests
and a certain degree of property ownership. Marx theorised about the bourgeoisie, a
group of people that represented members of society who hold the majority of the
wealth and means. The proletariat is the other group: it includes those considered
working class or poor. With the rise of capitalism, Marx theorised that the
bourgeoisie, a minority within the population, would use their influence to oppress
the proletariat, the majority class.1This way of thinking is tied to a common image
associated with conflict theory-based models of society; adherents to this
philosophy tend to believe in a pyramid arrangement in terms of how goods and
services are distributed in society; at the top of the pyramid is a small group of
elites that dictate the terms and conditions to the larger portion of society because
they have an out-sized amount of control over resources and power.
Uneven distribution within society was predicted to be maintained through
ideological coercion; the bourgeoisie would force acceptance of the current
conditions by the proletariat. Conflict theory assumes that the elite will set up
systems of laws, traditions, and other societal structures in order to further support
their own dominance while preventing others from joining their ranks. Marx
theorized that, as the working class and poor were subjected to worsening
conditions, a collective consciousness would raise more awareness about inequality,
and this would potentially result in revolt. If, after the revolt, conditions were
adjusted to favour the concerns of the proletariat, the conflict circle would
eventually repeat but in the opposite direction. The bourgeoisie would eventually
become the aggressor and revolter, grasping for the return of the structures that
formerly maintained their dominance
Conflict Theory Assumptions
In current conflict theory, there are four primary assumptions which are
helpful to understand: competition, revolution, structural inequality, and war.
1. Competition
Conflict theorists believe that competition is a constant and, at times, an
overwhelming factor in nearly every human relationship and interaction.
Competition exists as a result of the scarcity of resources, including material
resources–money, property, commodities, and more. Beyond material resources,
individuals and groups within a society also compete for intangible resources as
well. These can include leisure time, dominance, social status, sexual partners, etc.
Conflict theorists assume that competition is the default (rather than cooperation).
2. Revolution
Given conflict theorists' assumption that conflict occurs between social
classes, one outcome of this conflict is a revolutionary event. The idea is that
change in a power dynamic between groups does not happen as the result of a
gradual adaptation. Rather, it comes about as the symptom of conflict between these
groups. In this way, changes to a power dynamic are often abrupt and large in scale,
rather than gradual and evolutionary.
3. Structural Inequality
An important assumption of conflict theory is that human relationships and
social structures all experience inequalities of power. In this way, some individuals
and groups inherently develop more power and reward than others. Following this,
those individuals and groups that benefit from a particular structure of society tend
to work to maintain those structures as a way of retaining and enhancing their
power.
 4. War
Conflict theorists tend to see war as either a unifier or as a "cleanser" of
societies. In conflict theory, war is the result of a cumulative and growing conflict
between individuals and groups, and between entire societies. In the context of war,
a society may become unified in some ways, but conflict still remains between
multiple societies. On the other hand, war may also result in the wholesale end of a
society.
Characteristics of Conflict Theory
The main characteristics of conflict theory:
1. It is a universal process found in every society.
2. It is the result of deliberate and conscious efforts of individuals or the groups.
3. The nature of the conflict is personal and direct. In conflict the incumbents or
participants know each other personally.
4. It is basically an individual’s process. Its aim is not directly connected with
the achievement of the goal or an objective but is rather directed to dominate
others or to eliminate the opponent.
5. Conflict is of brief duration, temporary and intermittent in character. But,
once begun, the conflict process is hard to stop. It tends to grow more and
more bitter as it proceeds. Being temporary, it gives way to some form of
accommodation.
6. It is a process loaded with impulsiveness of human emotions and violent
passions. It gains force and then bursts open. Unlike fighting of animals,
generally in human groups, the spontaneous fighting is inhibited. It is often
avoided through the process of accommodation and assimilation.
7. It may be latent or overt. In the latent form, it may exist in the form of
tension, dissatisfaction, contravention and rivalry. It becomes overt when an
issue is declared and a hostile action is taken.
8. It is mostly violent but it may take the form of negotiations, party politics,
disputes or rivalry.
9. It is cumulative; each act of aggression usually promotes a more aggressive
rebuttal. Thus, termination of conflict is not easy.
10.It tends to be more intense when individuals and groups who have close
relationships with one another are involved.
11.Groups previously in conflict may co-operate to achieve a goal considered
important enough for them to unite despite their differences.
12.It may emerge as a result of opposing interests. It is layered in a history of
binary perceptions: outsider/insider, us/them, patriotic/unpatriotic.
 13.It has both disintegrative and integrative effects. It disrupts unity in a society
and is a disturbing way of setting issues. A certain account of internal
conflict, however, may serve indirectly to stimulate group interaction.
External conflict can have positive effects by unifying the group.
Conflict Theory Applied To Society
Conflict theory offers a useful lens with which to analyse society. One might
use this theory to explain the enmity between rich and poor within any society. This
enmity could be expressed emotionally, verbally, or physically. Applying the theory
to notable class conflicts is possible. Events such as the "Battle in Seattle" over
global trade or the French Revolution serve as two examples.
Conflict theory can also be used to explain non-economic conflicts within a
society. One might look at the divide between Protestants and Catholics as a battle
over spiritual resources. On a less macro level, the competition between students in
a classroom serves as a useful example as well. In such ways, conflict theory is
usefully ambiguous in its application to innumerable phenomena.
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY
Social exchange theory was introduced in 1958 by the sociologist George
Homans with the publication of his work &Social Behavior as Exchange “. It posits
that human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis
and the comparison of alternatives. Social exchange theory views exchange as a
social behaviour that may result in both economic and social outcomes. Many social
workers strive to help their clients improve their personal relationships, whether
those are between spouses, parents and children, other relatives, friends or co-
workers. Social workers can discuss with their clients how they choose to interact
with others and why. The workers can help clients take a closer look at their
behaviour, including why they pursue or end relationships.
In social exchange theory, people tend to make comparisons, often
unconsciously. They compare their relationship to their expectations, previous
similar relationships, and alternative relationships. The point of comparison is to
help a person decide when they’re receiving enough of a net benefit. But if someone
doesn’t have healthy relationships to compare to, they might continue to pursue
unhealthy or unsafe relationships.
Social workers can help clients navigate their expectations and comparisons
in search of safe, healthy and happy relationships. Social workers also can use
social exchange theory to understand their interactions with their clients. By
identifying the intrinsic rewards that they receive from helping their clients,
workers gain motivation to continue their work.
 Theories of social exchange view social life as a series of transactions.
Social exchange transactions involve the exchange of some resource, broadly
defined, between two or more parties (individuals or institutions). These exchanges
are viewed as interdependent in the sense that the behaviour of one party is
contingent on the actions of another. A basic tenet of social exchange is that an
offer of a benefit generates an obligation to reciprocate in kind. In time, a series of
interdependent transactions will generate trust, loyalty, and mutual commitments.
Although theories of social exchange differ on particulars, they highlight
three central principles:
 Interdependent transactions are defined by rules or norms of exchange.
 Social exchange quality is defined by the attributes of the resources being
exchanged.
 Social exchanges evolve into relationships among the parties involved.
Exchange Rules and Norms
Exchange rules and norms define the expectations or attributes of transactions.
In this way, parties of exchange use rules to guide behaviour. Over time, these rules
may become social norms, or moral standards of behaviour. Both exchange rules
and norms define how parties should behave and be treated. Within the
organizational sciences, the most commonly accepted rule is reciprocity. However,
other rules are also important for understanding social exchange.
What are the Basic Principles of the Theory?
The theory of social exchange proposes that individuals will make decisions
based on certain outcomes. For example, they will expect the most profit, rewards,
positive outcomes and long-term benefits. They will also prefer the exchange that
results in the most security, social approval and independence. In contrast, they will
also choose alternatives that result in the fewest costs, consequences and least social
disapproval. Therefore, every social exchange decision can be a complex decision
that requires the person to evaluate different costs and rewards.
Core Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory
The foundation of social exchange theory rests on several core assumptions
regarding human nature and the nature of relationships. The first assumption is that
humans tend to seek out rewards and avoid punishments. Another tenet is the
assumption that a person begins an interaction to gain maximum profit with
minimal cost the individual is driven by “what’s in it for me?” A third assumption is
that individuals tend to calculate the profit and cost before engaging. Finally, the
theory assumes that people know that this “payoff” will vary from person to person,
as well as with the same person over time.
Basic Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory
 People who are involved in the interaction are rationally seeking to maximize
their profits.
 Most gratification among humans comes from others.
 People have access to information about social, economic, and psychological
aspects of their interactions that allow them to consider the alternative, more
profitable situations relative to their present situation.
 People are goal-oriented in a freely competitive system.
 The exchange operates within cultural norms.
 Social credit is preferred over social indebtedness.
 The more deprived the individual feels in terms of an act, the more the person
will assign a value to it.
 People are rational and calculate the best possible means to compete in
rewarding situations. The same is true of punishment avoidance situations.
George Homans (1910-1989)
Social exchange theory proposes that social behavior is the result of an
exchange process. ... According to this theory, developed by sociologist George
Homans, people weigh the potential benefits and risks of social relationships. When
the risks outweigh the rewards, people will terminate or abandon that relationship.
Costs vs. Benefits
Costs involve things that you see as negatives such as having to put money,
time, and effort into a relationship. For example, if you have a friend that always
has to borrow money from you, then this would be seen as a high cost.
The benefits are things that you get out of the relationship such as fun,
friendship, companionship, and social support. Your friend might be a bit of a
freeloader, but bring a lot of fun and excitement to your life. As you are
determining the value of the friendship, you might decide that the benefits outweigh
the potential costs.
Expectations and Comparison Levels
Cost-benefit analysis plays a major role in the social exchange process, but
so do expectations. As people weigh benefits against the costs, they do so by
establishing a comparison level that is often influenced by past experiences. If you
have always had poor friendships, your comparison levels at the start of a
relationship will be lower than a person who has always had supportive and caring
friends.
For example, if your previous romantic partner showered you with displays
of affection, your comparison level for your next relationship is going to be quite
high when it comes to affection. If your next romantic partner tends to be more
reserved and less emotional, that person might not measure up to your expectations.
Evaluating the Alternatives
Another aspect of the social exchange process involves looking at the
possible alternatives. After analyzing the costs and benefits and contrasting these
against your comparison levels, you might start to look at possible alternatives. The
relationship might not measure up to your comparison levels, but as you survey the
potential alternatives, you might determine that the relationship is still better than
anything else that is available. As a result, you might go back and reassess the
relationship in terms of what may now be a somewhat lower comparison level.
The Honeymoon Phase
The length of a friendship or romance can also play a role in the social
exchange process. During the early weeks or months of a relationship, often
referred to as the “honeymoon phase” people are more likely to ignore the social
exchange balance. Things that would normally be viewed as high cost are
dismissed, ignored, or minimized, while potential benefits are often exaggerated.
When this honeymoon period finally comes to an end, there will often be a
gradual evaluation of the exchange balance. Downsides will become more apparent
and benefits will start to be seen more realistically. This recalibration of the
exchange balance might also lead to the termination of the relationship if the
balance is tipped too far toward the negative side.
Peter Michael Blau (1918 Vienna, Austria - 2002).
Blau was interested in examining the processes that guide face-to-face
interaction (like Homans). Blau argued that such interaction is shaped by a
reciprocal exchange of rewards, both tangible and intangible (like Homans). Blau’s
major contribution major contribution to exchange theory.” the analysis of the
originsand principles governing exchange behaviour is close to Homans is
essentially concentrated with setting out a deductive theory of behaviour in general.
By contrast, Blau sees exchange as one particular aspect of most social behaviour.
his analyses suggest how an exchange perspective can provide explanation rather
than offering strict deduction and exposition.
 Basic principles from Blau’s theories and established what he called “Blau’s
implicit exchange principles:
 Rationality Principle: The more profit people expect from one another in
participating in a particular activity, the more likely they are to engage in the
activity.
 Reciporality Principles:
A) The more people have exchanged rewards with one another, the more the
reciprocal obligations that emerge and guide subsequent exchanges among these
people.
B) The more the reciprocal obligations of an exchange relationship are violated,
the more disposed deprived parties are to sanction negatively those violating
the norm of reciprocity.
 Justice Principles:
A. The more exchange relations have been established, the more likely they are to
be governed by norms of fair exchange.
B. The less norms of fairness are realized in an exchange, the more disposed
deprived parties are to sanction negatively those violation the norms.
 Marginal Utility Principle: The more expected rewards have been
forthcoming from a particular activity, the less valuable the activities is and
the less likely its performance is
 Imbalance Principle: The more stabilized and balanced one set of exchange
relations is among social units the more likely are other exchange relations to
become imbalanced and unstable
Applications of Social Exchange Theory
Social exchange theory can be applied to many situations, including:
 Romantic relationships
 Friendships
 Workplace behaviour
 Organizational management
 Business decisions
 Social power
 Leadership
 Politics
 Consumer purchasing decisions
 Television viewing decision.
How Does Social Exchange Theory Apply To Social Work?
Social workers can use the theory of social exchange to help their clients
repeat positive interactions and behaviours. Social workers must understand that
every person is looking for rewards within a relationship. Clients want more
positive outcomes from their relationship with the social worker than negative
outcomes. They want the rewards they receive to be greater than the cost. Social
workers can create interactions in which the clients receive some benefit. When a
person receives rewards for certain actions, they tend to repeat them. But when a
person receives the same reward over and over, it becomes less effective. Social
workers must keep this in mind and vary their interactions with their clients.
Many social workers strive to help their clients improve their personal
relationships, whether those are between spouses, parents and children, other
relatives, friends or co-workers. Social workers can discuss with their clients how
they choose to interact with others and why. The workers can help clients take a
closer look at their behaviour, including why they pursue or end relationships.
In social exchange theory, people tend to make comparisons, often
unconsciously. They compare their relationship to their expectations, previous
similar relationships, and alternative relationships. The point of comparison is to
help a person decide when they are receiving enough of a net benefit. But if
someone does not have healthy relationships to compare to, they might continue to
pursue unhealthy or unsafe relationships. Social workers can help clients navigate
their expectations and comparisons in search of safe, healthy and happy
relationships.
Social workers also can use social exchange theory to understand their
interactions with their clients. By identifying the intrinsic rewards that they receive
from helping their clients, workers gain motivation to continue their work.
Example
A simple example of social exchange theory can be seen in the interaction of
asking someone out on a date. If the person says yes, you have gained a reward and
are likely to repeat the interaction by asking that person out again, or by asking
someone else out. On the other hand, if you ask someone out on a date and they
reply, “No way!” then you have received a punishment that will probably cause you
to shy away from repeating this type of interaction with the same person in the
future.
PHASES IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION: - STUDY, ANALYSIS, ASSESSMENT,
ORGANIZATION, ACTION, EVALUATION, MODIFICATION AND CONTINUATION.

In community organization and social policy, description of phases is

complex and differs from author to author, reflecting the complex and diversified
nature of the subject matter. For example in community organization study is used
alternatively as fact finding, problem identification, need assessment, asset
mapping, social analysis, opportunity assessment etc. Each alternative has its own
value orientation and methodological specification. Fact finding and problem
identification may look similar, but the usage of problem identification is neutral or
academic in nature when compared with fact finding. But the usage of these
different terminologies is not to confuse the learners but to catch the reality –
complex, diversified and risk prone nature of the community life. Besides these,
there is multitude of methodologies available to use in every phase.
1. STUDY
To understand the community the basic information about the community is
needed for which a formal or an informal survey could be conducted. The following
steps are to be taken under study in community organization.
(I) Identifying the problem
Under the step the following information is gathered.
 Nature of the problem.
 Severity of the problem.
 Implications of the problem.
 Causation of the problem.
 Recognitions of the need for change.
 Scope of the problem.
 Efforts made to solve the problem.
 Effectiveness of the previous efforts.
 Reasons for success or failure.
(II) Perception of the problem – Facts and data
 Attitude of the communities.
 Perception of the problem.
 Significant different attitudes.
(III) Structural – Functional analysis
 Origins of the problem.
 Characteristics of the community structure that maintains problems.
 Forces operating favorably and unfavorably.
  Significant element of the social structure.
This phase also involves the invitation of the community organizer from
the community to take the developmental activities in the community. So as to
legitimatize his/her role and the community organizer should come to a local area
only when he/she receives an invitation, generally from an organization or a small
group that is discontented about present conditions. Often the community organizer
has to tactfully work out to receive such an invitation, by speaking to friends who
will speak to others who will make it known that help is available for social
improvement.
2. ANALYSIS
We analyze certain factors in the community and study the same to make
more pragmatic approach. C.F.Mcveil defined the analysis as “That successful
community organization work is susceptible of analysis and the purpose of such
review should be search for governing rather than merely appraisal of result
attained.”
What to be analyzed?
 The total number of organization discovered: an actual count.
 Which organizations have similar purpose? Which organizations have
antagonistic purpose?
 Which organizations carry on similar activities?
 What is the average size (in terms of members) of the community
organization?
 What important segments of community are not being served by
organization?
 What organizations meet at the same time what days are most free of the
organizational meetings?
 How will do people of community attend meetings?
 What organizations are in cooperative relationship?
 Which organizations cooperate with no other organization?
 What leaders are influential in two or more organizations?
 What general observations do people who helped in the survey?
The collected information should be classified according to the common
characteristics and quantify the information for its magnitude and severity. The
analysed information is ready for sharing with the others though the analysis
appears to be a technical process the community organizer could carry this out or
the members of the community are encouraged to analyze the data.
 3. ASSESSMENT
Assessment is an important task for the community organizer. Assessment
provides a differential approach to treatment based on community differences and
needs. It clearly recognized the uniqueness of every situation, the importance of
treatmentplanning related to a particular problematic situation systembreakdown or
trouble within a life situation. In addition to the above, the communities’ strengths
need to be identified and utilized as part of the change process.
Major tasks of assessment
 Developing a rapport with the community that will facilitate community’s
genuine engagements in the assessment process.
 Using appropriate theoretical constructs that allow the community and the
practitioner to better understand the community’s circumstances.
 Setting goals, along with determining the appropriate intervention to employ.
The community organizer seeks to find some common problems or concerns
or needs that the local citizens are willing to try to resolve through informal
conversations.
 The needs and problems, which are widely felt by the community, are
identified and given priority according to the urgency. After prioritizing the
problem, the symptoms, the causes, the magnitude and severity could be
assessed for further action.
 The number of people who are willing to work at a problem is often very
small at first, perhaps as small as two or three. This small chunk forms the;
nucleus A nucleus is defined as a small group of serious - minded citizens
who should have the following characteristics:
(1) Know and trust each other, even when disagreements arise.
(2) Have a concern about local problems and a desire to improve conditions for all
their neighbours.
(3) Conscious of standards of right and wrong. They become the means for
involving others.
In this stage the community organizer has to make an attempt to precisely
define and agree upon the area of interest through the informal meetings. Often
there will be many considerations, differing points of view, and long, long
discussions. The initial few in the nucleus are encouraged to invite their friends and
neighbours to these meetings to enlarge the size of the nucleus.
At times local participants become aware that they are lacking in some skill
viewed as important to accomplishing their objective. Perhaps a need is recognized
for training in record - keeping of events, meetings, and encounters with people. Or,
perhaps a community survey is viewed as essential to accomplishing the purpose,
and a need is felt for training in such research, when such a training need is agreed
upon, a qualified and sympathetic outsider may be invited in to provide training or
act as a resource discussant.
4. ORGANIZATION
“Organization means orderly arrangement of the group effort to provide unity of
action in the pursuit of a common purpose”.-- Dunham
Knowledge of “organization” can help community organizers in many ways:
1. How to organize:
A. When we organize the people, we must understand their level of awareness.
 Naive Level of Awareness – People aware about the problem. eg. poverty
 Critical Level of Awareness- People know about the laws of the problem e.g.
Land is available but it lie waste & dry.
 Organizational level of awareness: People aware about neither a good leader
not a good idea is enough to organize the people. When we organize the
people, we must remember how people in respect organization are used to
working and their organization in the past.
E.g. Small farmers may not adjust easily in a large co-op farm where work in
organized on expertise co-op form where work is organized based on expertise.
Factory worker who is accustomed to division of work may not adjust in a
small organization where division of work is not followed.
B. The build organization in such a way to facilitate people’s participation:
 Choosing right persons for the right job.
 Providing substantial representation.
C. To develop the organization / sustain the interest of the members:
 Selecting volunteers or indigenous ‘non-professional aides, coordinators,
contact person etc
 Leadership training
 Socialization – Motivation and satisfaction of members
D. To understand the organization structure:
To learn the organizational robes, understanding who is who, what is what, why
is why of its informal activity:
1. Identifying human resources-to get information and advice, co-operation or help
2. Understanding the power structure.
5. ACTION
Locate the capable individuals and groups suitable to carry out the task.
Committees are formed, roles and responsibilities allotted. The members of the
community are encouraged to take part actively and accept responsibility so that the
action plan can be implemented smoothly. Implementation has to take place with
the active participation of the people. The action plan has to be monitored by the
members of the community ensure that the activities carried out within the time
frame and the resources allocated.
6. EVALUATION
Evaluation is a systematic assessment of progress of the role of the
implementing machinery and analysis of problems and difficulties arising in the
effective implementation of programme; and an indication of the corrective
measure necessary all by the community organizer.
Functions of Evaluation
 Evaluation is necessary to judge the effectiveness of the programmes keeping
in view the changing needs of the society.
 Further needs are essential for sound planning and the task of the policy-
making which are provided by evaluation.
 Through evaluation we can measure accomplishment in order to avoid
weaknesses and future mistakes.
 Evaluation helps us to see efficiency of the techniques and skills employed in
welfare programmes.
 Evaluation is necessary to understand the amount of participation of the
community.
 Evaluation helps the community organizer to make plans for future work on
the basis of data collected.
The members of the organization formed to take up the community project
have to discuss and critically evaluate the results of the work project. Often, the
organizer finds that the members will judge themselves harshly and be vigorous in
self criticism. Sometimes the organizer needs to soften the self- criticism, especially
if certain participants react overly defensively. With such discussions participants
and the nucleus frequently begin to make some revisions in their practical value
systems.
 7.MODIFICATION
In this phase any changes in the implementations of the programmes in its
strategies, may be modified according to the needs problems of the community by
the community organizer.
8. CONTINUATION
One of the major goals of community development is establishing a
permanent organization in the community. The healthy growth of community
nucleus may result the permanent organization in the community. So, the needs for
outside support to organization will not necessary after the nucleus has developed
the self-confidence to maintain on its own.
At this point the organizer has to withdraw himself from the organizational
activities. The organizer may withdraw gradually, perhaps by attending fewer
meetings and contributing very less in the organizational dialogue. The organizer
may withdraw completely, except perhaps for friendly letters and an occasional
visit. Or, perhaps the encourager will remain on call; for complexities that arise.
The nature, timing, and rapidity of the withdrawal are matters of judgment
that should be based primarily on the needs of the nucleus. As the nucleus continues
to grow in size and confidence, it is anticipated that the nucleus will take on
increasing responsibility by tackling problems of increasing complexity.
Conclusion
Community Organisation is one of the primary methods of social work. It
deals with intervention in the communities to solve the community problems. As a
method of social work community organisation can solve the problems of many
people in the community through their collective involvement. In community
organization and social policy, description of phases is complex and differs from
author to author, reflecting the complex and diversified nature of the subject matter.
MODELS AND APPROACHES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION METHOD

The development of any nation depends on the development of its people.

Hence, most of the governmental and non-governmental organizations devise
different developmental programmers for their communities. For proper planning
and implementation of these programmes, they need to understand different models
of community organization. Model is nothing but a window through which a
community worker looks at the complex nature of community. Those who want to
work with communities should have a theoretical framework of knowledge. It helps
in working smoothly. It facilitates them in deciding and adopting different strategies
to achieve the ultimate goal of community development. It also helps the
community worker to decide what skills and techniques are to be used during
different meetings with people, roles to be played, etc.
MODELS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
Jack Rothman (1974) has given the following three models of community
organization:
1. Locality Development Model:
Locality development model presupposes that community change may be
pursued optimally through broad participation of a wide spectrum of people at the
local community level in goal determination and action. This model emphasizes the
process of community building. In other words, its main focus is on the whole
community or on a part of it. It believes that communities have some common
needs and interests. Once the people realize their needs and interests, they come
together to solve them to improve the quality of their life.
According to Dunham (1970) this model is based on five elements, namely:
 Democratic procedures
 Voluntary cooperation
 Self-help
 Development of local leadership (indigenous leadership)
 Education
If this model is used while working with the communities, one can see
increase in local people’s participation in all the programmes. It increases the
capabilities of local people. Because of increase in cooperation, development of
local leadership is promoted. The ultimate result of this model shows empowerment
of people. The main challenge to the community worker using locality development
model is how to increase the community participation. For understanding the
community, he/she has to use different strategies and techniques such as meeting
and interviewing key informants and conducting focus group discussions. The
community worker should make special efforts to involve community and political
leaders, members of agencies working in that area and other professionals. She/he
should ensure that marginalized people also participate in the assessment of
common needs and interests. The community worker also has to create
opportunities for equal participation especially during the process of problem-
solving and decision-making. Identifying common interests and needs, and
accordingly deciding common goals/objectives for development is an important part
in the whole process. The major role of the community worker in implementing
locality development model is that of an enabler and a catalyst. She/he brings
people together (organizational skills), initiates communication (problem solving),
and develops understanding to promote interpersonal relationship among the
community members. The NGOs who want to implement various schemes and
programmes to fulfil the needs of a particular area or community may use this
model. It involves networking and coordination with various agencies who offer
different services for the Welfare of communities
2. Social Planning Model
Social planning model is basically concerned with social problems. Its main
goal is to solve community problems. It emphasizes a technical process of problem-
solving with regard to social problems such as housing, health, etc. As stated by
Rothman, rational, deliberatively planned and controlled change has a central place
in this model. The community worker can collect information regarding the needs
of the community and services available in that particular community/area. Based
on this, he can suggest solutions to get the maximum benefits from these services.
For example, problems of housing, illiteracy, non- availability of appropriate health
services, etc. are important issues which need attention. Once the data is collected,
the analysis of the data may be done by the worker or professionals. Accordingly,
decisions are taken by professionals. Issues are prioritized by service providers. At
this stage, the involvement of community people in planning is almost negligible. In
other words, the power remains with planners and service providers. In this process,
conflict may arise between the community and service providers. In this model,
planning is done for and not with community people. Somewhere, the feeling of
donor and receiver comes. This also increases dependency on outsiders. In short,
capacity building and empowerment of community people for development is not a
major goal of this model. The planner normally establishes contacts with the
organization and/or government body and makes arrangement to deliver services
which fulfil the needs of the community. By using this model, there might be either
consensus or conflict with the people. There are various services to cater to the
needs of a society such as health, education, sanitation, employment, etc. Social
planning model presupposes that change requires expert planners. Through expert’s
technical abilities and skills of dealing with bureaucrats, they can bring the desired
change. The focus here is on establishing, arranging, and delivering goods and
services to people who need them. The role of a community worker in this model is
that of a researcher (who can collect data), programme implementer, and
spokesperson (if required) with bureaucrats.
3. Social Action Model
Each society has small communities and groups. They are directly controlled
by the governments’ policies and laws. Informally, they are controlled by the
customs, traditions and beliefs of the respective community as well. All these
factors decide the social rights of an individual. The macro level policies affect the
micro level people. This model aims to change decisions, societal structures and
cultural beliefs. Social action is a strategy used by groups or communities who feel
that they have inadequate power and resources to meet their needs. This model
presupposes a disadvantaged segment of the population that needs to be organized,
in order to make adequate demands. They are deprived of resources. To give them
social justice and bring democracy, equality in real sense of the word, this approach
is practiced. To bring equality, one has to confront the power structure. It aims at
making basic changes in major institutions or community practices. This model
emphasizes on social justice, equality, redistribution of power and resources,
participation in decision-making and/or changing basic policies of formal
organizations. It demands for improved treatment. Conflict as a method is used to
solve their issues related to inequalities and deprivation, especially for the issues
like women’s liberation, reservation policy, right to information, etc. Social action
model focuses on the review of social policies and practices that continue to
disempower and oppress the marginalized people. It aims to achieve social progress
by modifying social policies and changing social legislations (if required) and
welfare services. The role of the community worker may be of an activist or
advocate. She/he creates opportunities for marginalized people to participate, be
heard and makes decisions on activities that affect their quality of life. Social action
model use change tactics of conflict or contrast, such as confrontation and direct
action or negotiation. Some of the tactics usually used in the social action model are
campaigns, appeals, petitions, boycotts, strikes, picketing, sit-ins, etc. But some
tactics are non-violent yet illegal and represent a form of civil disobedience. In this
model, the community worker uses all means to pressurize the power structure to
give justice to the people. The role of a community worker may be that of an
advocate, activist, agitator, broker, mediator or negotiator, depending on the issues
and situations. This is a long process which goes through different stages. It is very
difficult to predict the success rate. However, the community worker can sow the
seeds of social change. The role of a community worker also changes at every
stage. The well-known examples of this model are Narmada Bachao Andolan,
Lokpal Vidheyak, and Right to
Information Act:
The practice of each of these models may require certain techniques and
skills. Many community workers use a combination of more than one model.
APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

History witnessed a variety of approaches to community organization.

Neighbourhood organizing approach is one of the important approaches
implemented during 20th century onwards. The feature of this approach is that
people of the community put efforts to solve their day- to-day problems and help
those in need. There are in reality three approaches:
The Social Work Approach:
The main focus is on the whole society. It pays more attention towards
building a sense of community. This approach was used in USA during social
settlement movement and war on poverty alleviation programme in the 1960s. In
this approach, the community worker plays the role of an enabler and/or advocate.
She/he helps the community in identifying their problems and tries to overcome
them by gathering existing resources from the community and getting some help
from the people who are in power.
The Political Activist Approach:
Saul Alinsky is the founder of this approach. Philosophy behind this
approach is “more the representatives in the organization, stronger the
organization”. In this approach, he looked at the community as a political entity.
The approach says that most of the problems are due to unequal distribution of
power and resources. Power is concentrated in the hands of a few people and the
majority of the community is deprived of it. Hence, they focus on gaining the
power. In doing so, they face conflict with the groups with vested interests. The role
of a community worker at times, is that of facilitator, sometimes of a leader as well.
She/he has to help people to understand the problem in terms of power, make them
understand how it is directly and/or indirectly affecting their lives and how they are
denied of their rights and help them to take necessary steps to resolve these issues.
This approach has the potential of bringing equality as it emphasizes on rights-
based approach.
Neighbourhood Maintenance/Community Development Approach:
This approach is a combination of earlier two approaches. It uses peer
group pressure to provide services in the community. The strategy includes
pressurizing the officials to deliver the services to the community. Appropriate
phasing and mixing of these models can be done to bring sustainable development.
Social Planning
Social planning involves community and government groups and
organizations working together in collaboration to address critical social issues
facing a community. Social planning has also been referred to as community
development or community social planning. New sustainability efforts taking place
in BC communities also involves social planning. Communities that effectively
undertake these processes help to build healthier communities. Michael Clague
defined social planning as, “a local, democratic system for setting priorities,
arriving at equitable compromises and taking action. It supports community needs
and interests in social, cultural, economic, and environmental affairs.” Visit the
Social Planning and Research Council of BC for more information and a report
from Michael Clague. Social planning ensures that efforts to deal with social issues
take place on a coordinated and community-wide basis.
Social Action
Social action is the practice of taking action – usually as part of an
organized group or community – to create positive change. Sometimes social action
can lead to profound social change, as in the case of the Civil Rights Movement;
sometimes social action seeks more limited and specific changes – the preservation
of an open space, for example, or better pay for a specific group of workers. Social
action, by its nature, is often practiced by those who either traditionally have little
power in society – the poor, minorities, or people with disabilities, for example –
but it may also be used by any group that feels its concerns are being ignored. By
working together, members of these groups can exercise power collectively because
of their numbers, using the media, their votes, boycotts, and other types of social,
political, and economic pressure to convince those in power to rethink their
positions. A few of the numerous reasons that a group might engage in social
action:
 To include in policy considerations, the interests of those who have
traditionally been ignored in these discussions, most often low-income and
minority communities.
 To institute fairer policies and eliminate discrimination. To right past wrongs,
as in providing apologies and restitution to Japanese-Americans who were
unfairly – and unconstitutionally – interned in concentration camps in the
American West during World War II.
 To prevent harm to the community. This might mean challenging the siting
of an industrial facility because of pollution concerns, for instance.
 To gain particular benefits to the community, or a part of the community,
sometimes on quite a small scale. To preserve something of historical or
social value.
PAULO FREIRE AND CONSCIENTIZATION.

Freire’s theory and practice of political education are associated with the
key concept of conscientization’. Crick’s theory and practice of political education
are associated with the key concept of political literacy’. Although there are
differences conscientization has the connotation of consciousness raising’ and of
seeing the world in a new way, while political literacy has the connotation of
reading political situations-both are aimed at the empowerment of learners and at
helping them acquire new knowledge and develop skills. Both redefine and relocate
politics so that it can no longer be. The preserve of professional politicians in far-
away places, who send communiqués from the metropolis to the provinces, from
the center to the periphery, from above to those below. In Britain this is to challenge
the presentation of politics as a gladiatorial contest between two party leaders,
fought out in Parliament and television studios (and Parliament itself has now
become a television studio) and, very occasionally, general elections. For the people
this left politics as a kind of ritual performance, and as a spectator sport. Both Freire
and Crick, in presenting politics as an ongoing activity and a continuing process,
stress the importance of ordinary people as political actors. Some of the differences
between conscientization and political literacy, in practice, are related to the way in
which they operated in different contexts-the first with adults and non-formal
education, the second with young adults in schools. Non-formal education and
formal education afford different possibilities and present different limit situations
to political educators. There are, though, a number of common problems and
common opponents.
SAUL ALINSKY AND ORGANIZED MASS ACTION

Saul Alinsky was of the opinion that problems facing communities do not
result from a lack of effective solutions but from lack of power to implement these
solutions. Thus, any social change must be preceded by a passive, affirmative and
non-challenging attitude among the masses. He believed that since people are
naturally fearful of change, they avoid or resist it. Therefore they must feel so
frustrated, so defeated, so lost, so futureless in the existing system that they are
willing to let go of the past and change the future. The only way for communities to
build long term power is by organizing people and resources around a common
vision. This is a gradual process built over a period of time through the engagement
of the community organizer with the community people.
Relying on gradualism, infiltration and dialectic process, rather than a
bloody revolution, Alinsky’s model of community organization practice was so
subtle that very few people ever noticed the deliberate changes. Each of the three
concepts in italics are explained below.
 Gradualism: Alinsky’s brand of revolution (tactic for bringing about social
change) was not characterized by dramatic, sweeping, overnight
transformations of social institutions. He viewed revolution as a slow, patient
process. Therefore, the community organizer will be able to create mass
organizations in order to seize power and give it to the people for realizing
 the democratic dream of equality, peace and justice. The only way for
communities to build long-term power is by organizing people and resources
around commonly identified issues.
 Infiltration: To bring about this reformation among masses, the community
organizer must work inside the system. The trick was to penetrate existing
institutions such as churches, unions and political parties. He advised
community organizers to quietly, subtly gain influence within the decision
making ranks of these institutions and to introduce changes from that
platform. Alinsky’s emphasis on the importance of working inside the system
in order to bring about any change originated in his belief that the system had
the potential for change. So, he urged young community organizers to begin
their work from within the system, making an effort to understand the
realities of the system, the operational mechanisms, the various stakeholders
involved therein and their roles and responsibilities.
 Dialectic Process: Alinsky’s prescription of social change required grassroots
organizing that taught community people to help themselves by confronting
government and corporations to obtain the resources and power to improve
their lives. The key to community organization is that it is not about winning
any one issue. It is about building broad coalitions and training community
members to conduct campaigns that let them win on several issues.
Community organizers need to focus on building community and power.
Issues are simply the tools for this building process. Alinsky emphasized on
leadership of the community organizer as an indispensable element in the
success of community organizing. Saul Alinsky had a particular stand on the
subject of means and ends. He believed that an individual’s concern with the
ethics of means (processes employed) and ends (transfer of power from
Haves to Have Not’s) varies inversely with one’s personal engagement with
the issue in consideration and with one’s distance from the scene of conflict.
The deeper was an individual’s engagement with the issue lesser would he be
concerned with the moral underpinnings of action that is being planned and
implemented. He was critical of those who criticizedthe morality of actions
they were not involved in. For him thefurther people are away from the
conflict, the more they fuss over delicacies of morality. According to Alinsky
the understanding of means and the ethics of achieving the desired goals is
dependent upon the position of the two parties involved in conflict for power.
Both parties engaged in conflict will claim and need to claim that the
opposition’s stand is immoral and that their own means are ethical and rooted
in the highest of human values.Each party will find ways to judge the
methods of opposition as immoral or unethical, even if they themselves are
using the same. In war the end justifies the means. Alinsky was of the
 opinion that once an action has ended, the means can be justified
/rationalized as consistent and moral. Using the example of passive resistance
strategy of Mahatma Gandhi, Alinsky explained that Gandhi not only made a
practical use of the strategy but invited it against the British colonizers to win
independence from them. However, interestingly eight months after securing
independence the Indian National Congress outlawed passive resistance as a
crime.
Principles of Alinsky’s Model of CO Practice
1. A community organizer working in an open community is in an ideological
dilemma to begin with. He does not have a fixed or pre-determined set of objectives
to initiate work.
2. Community situations in the early phase of his/her work are relative and dynamic
(ever changing). He/she must be alert to respond to the ever changing situations.
3. Community organizer must be resilient, adaptable to shifting political
circumstances and sensitive enough to the process of action and reaction so as to
avoid being trapped by their own tactics and be forced to take steps not in favor of
community.
4. Whenever we think about social change, the question of means and ends arises.
The end is what you want and the means is how you get it. Community organizer
views the issue of means and ends in practical and strategic terms. He/she assesses
the available resources and the possibilities of various courses of action. The ends
are viewed only in terms of whether they are achievable or not and worth the cost.
The means are viewed only in terms of whether they will work.
5. The most unethical of all means is the non-use of any means. Themeans and ends
moralists constantly obsessed with ethics of means used by the “Have Nots” against
the “Haves” should introspect (search within) themselves as to their real political
position. Their obsession with ethical means turns them into allies of “Haves” and
enemies of “Have Nots”.
6. Change comes from power and power comes from organization. From the
moment community organizer enters the community, he/she lives and dreams only
one thing and that is to build mass power. Until he/she has built the mass power
base, he/she does not take up any major issues.
7. Until the community organizer has mass power base, his/her tactics are very
different from power tactics. His/her every move revolves around one central point
– how many recruits will this bring into the organization.
8. It is academic to draw a line between purpose and process. Purpose tells why and
process tells us how. Both are a part of the same continuum since purpose drives
process.
9. Tactics are those conscious, deliberate acts by which human beings live with
each other and deal with the world around them. In community organization we our
concern is with the tactic of wresting (taking away) power by the “Have Nots” from
the “Haves”.
10. The most important role of community organizer is to agitate till the point of
conflict in order to bring about change.
Strategies of Organizing the Community
Community organizing begins with the premise that the problems facing
communities do not result from lack of effective solutions, but from a lack of power
to implement these solutions.
1. Community Organizations are based on many issues. Therefore, the community
organizer’s first job is to identify or create issues or problems on which there is a
need to work. He must search controversies and issues rather than avoid them, as
unless there is controversy people are not concerned enough to act.
2. A community organizer must stir up dissatisfaction and discontent inthe
community. The organizer must rub raw the resentments of people of the
community and fan the latent hostilities of many people to the point of overt
expression.
3. According to Alinsky, the opposition must be portrayed as the very
personification of evil, against whom any and all methods were a fair game.
4. He/she must create a mechanism that can drain off the underlying guilt for having
accepted the previous situation for so long a time. Out of this mechanism arises a
new community.
5. The job then is to get the community people to move, to act, to participate. In
other words, to develop and harness the necessary power to effectively challenge
and conflict the existing/prevailing situations and change them.
6. The key to community organizing is about creating broad coalitions and training
community members to conduct campaigns on issues and problems that let them
win.
APPROACHES TO ORGANISING COMMUNITIES IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT:THE
GANDHIAN METHOD OF ORGANIZING – SATYAGRAHA

History of Community Organization in India A historical account of

community organization is not available in India, as there has been only limited
documentation on social work literature in general and on community organization
in particular. Community organization has its roots in the Charity organizations in
the United States. They realized the need of the people and tried to organize the
people to co-ordinate their work. The main activities were social welfare, raising
funds, seeking enactment for social legislation and co-ordination of welfare 28
Social Work Intervention with Communities and Institutions activities. The spirit
behind all these activities was charity. 4 In India, the very concept of charity is deep
rooted in the religious philosophy. Even before the commencement of the social
work education in India in 1936, the community work was in place, already in
existence. But in the first phase from 1936 to 1952 the community work was in a
dormant stage. During this period social work was in its infancy and not many were
employed in the community settings because there were hardly any jobs that
provided an opening for community organization. Professionals preferred to work
in casework settings. It was in 1952 that the community development project was
launched by the government of India and with this we find the emergence of a new
era of community work. The basic objective of community development in India
was to awaken the rural people of their needs, instilling in them a sense of ambition
for better life and making them aware of their right and power to find a solution for
their problems.
Gandhian Approach to Community Work
Gandhi has not given a clear-cut definition of the term community. For him
the village is the basic community with it geographical limitation where a History
of Community Organization 31 number of families come together and co-operate to
build a common life. According to Gandhi the basic element of a community is
mutual co-operation and common sharing. The emphasis of Gandhian concept of
community work is the reconstruction of the community rather than on organizing
an unorganized or disorganized community or on the development of an entirely
new community. Therefore the Gandhian objective of community work is to
reconstruct the village communities spread all over the country. This construction is
based on the constructive programs designed to meet the social welfare needs of the
community. It is through the construction of the village community Gandhi aims to
realize the goal of reconstructing the “sarvodaya social order”. Gandhi has not
given any specific or fixed pattern for the reconstruction programme but left it to
the capacity of those community organizers working to suit different conditions and
social situations. 5 The role of the worker in this approach is very distinct. Here, the
worker not only deals with those groups of people or communities who seek his
guidance but he would also approach those communities, which do not ask for help
because his prime work is towards the reconstruction of the society anywhere. In
this approach the worker takes initiatives and gradually stimulates the community.
It demands regularity and sincerity of the worker in the reconstruction programme
in his area of work.
Gandhi’s concept of Satyagraha
Gandhi’s concept of Satyagraha is an integrated concept and includes truth,
nonviolence, non-stealing, chastity or Brahmacharya, poverty or non-possession,
bread labour, fearlessness, control of the palate [Asvada], tolerance, Swadeshi and
removal of untouchability. Satyagraha, (Sanskrit and Hindi “holding onto truth”)
concept introduced in the early 20th century by Mahatma Gandhi to designate a
determined but nonviolent resistance to evil. Mahatma Gandhi developed an
integrated approach and perspective to the concept of life itself on the basis of his
experiences and experiments. His ideas, which came to be known as his philosophy,
were a part of his relentless search for truth. The concept of Satyagraha is related to
the social, political, cultural, economic and psychological conditions, which
influenced the life and personality of Gandhi. He adopted the nonviolent approach
to resist all the forces that exerted pressure on him physically and psychologically.
He believed that the supreme law that governs all living things and the universe is
nothing but love and non-violence. It was Gandhi’s firm belief that the basis of all
religions of the world was the law of love. The very purpose of non- violent
resistance and upholding the principles of truth was none other than asserting the
freedom of oneself over his mind and body. The quest for peace is an eternal pursuit
for human fulfilment. Peace or absence of antagonistic, violent, or destabilising
conflict is essential for existence to become life, for survival to become human.
Human beings can become human and humane only in conditions of peace.
Creativity, spirituality, 6 individual and collective achievements attain grandeur and
glory only when there is peace. Qualities of compassion, forgiveness, love, sharing
and universal solidarity become cherished and sought after virtuous attributes only
when a community, society or nation is at peace-within and without. War on the
other hand, internal or external, civil or military, declared or undeclared valorizes
bravery-the capacity to kill or be killed-the destruction of human life and
accomplishments; it mocks compassion and conscience; it belittles refusal to erect
artificial walls that divide human beings in the name of one identity or the other; it
glorifies the destructive principle and devalues the principle of creation and life.
The warmongers are invariably persons with few qualms of conscience, ever ready
to eliminate and exterminate human life, emotions, thought, ideas, and
achievements.
Scope of Satyagraha
According to Gandhi, Satyagraha can be adopted by anybody. Gandhi said
that Satyagraha was like a banyan tree, which had innumerable branches. Truth-
Satya and non- violence-Ahimsa together made its parent trunk from which all the
innumerable branches shoot out. Satyagraha has also been considered as a weapon
of soul force to resist any kind of oppression. While Gandhi regarded Satyagraha as
a way of life, during the freedom struggle of India, Satyagraha was used as a
weapon to resist the authority of the state and to achieve various things for the
general welfare of the people. Gandhi and his chief lieutenant Sardar Vallabhbhai
Patel had conducted the Satyagrahas at Champaran and Bardoli not only to achieve
material gains for the people, but also to resist the unjust authority of the then
British regime. The Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930, which was started with
the breaking of the Salt Law at Dandi, and the Quit India Movements were classic
examples when Gandhi and his colleagues used Satyagraha as a weapon of the soul
force. Satyagraha as a means of resistance and conflict resolution has different
forms. Hunger strike [fasting], Hartal [striking work], hijrat [immigration] etc. are
some of the forms suggested. The principles, conditions and qualifications of
Satyagraha are relevant to all these forms.
Relevance of Satyagraha in the Twenty-First Century
Gandhi was well aware of the increasing influence of materialistic
considerations on the modern society and individual. According to Gandhi, the
main objective of Satyagraha was to eradicate the evil or to reform the opponent. In
the present socioeconomic political system, there is a dire necessity to wean the
individual away from the influence of wealth, luxuries and power. In all the
educational institutions, right from the lowest level to the level of university, it
would be worthwhile to teach the young people the concept of Satyagraha and the
principles of truth and non-violence, as the basic factors contributing to the peace,
harmony and the welfare of the society. In all the industrial establishments and
other places of mass employment also, Satyagraha would be a viable alternative to
other methods for the peaceful resolution of disputes and conflicts. And in all walks
of life, wherever there is scope for conflict and disharmony, the practice of the
principles of truth and non-violence in the smallest way possible, would definitely
make a great contribution in bringing about peace and harmony. Satyagraha as an
ideal and as a great weapon of conflict resolution will always serve as a great
inspiration to the people of all generations to come, both in India and elsewhere. It
may not be possible for ordinary human beings to practice Brahmacharya, poverty
and simple living in the age of scientific and technological development, but the
usefulness of truth and non-violence will always be relevant wherever the goal is
prosperity, welfare and development, because without truth and non-violence, there
cannot be peace and without peace there cannot be development.
Three Pillars of Satyagraha
The Gandhian quest for peace rests on the foundation of non-violence. For
conflict resolution Mahatma Gandhi used method of Satyagraha [insistence on truth
or Zeal for Truth] that has three pillars:
1.Sat-which implies openness, honesty, and fairness:
 Each person’s opinions and beliefs represent part of the truth;
 In order to see more of the truth we must share our truths cooperatively;
 This implies a desire to communicate and a determination to do so, which in
turn requires developing and refining relevant skills of communication; and
 Commitment to seeing as much of the truth as possible means that we cannot
afford to categorize others or ourselves.
2. Ahimsa-refusal to inflict injury on others:
 Ahimsa is dictated by our commitment to communication and to sharing of
our pieces of the truth. Violence shuts off channels of communication;
 The concept of Ahimsa appears in most major religions, which suggests that
while most people may not practice it, it is respected as an ideal;
 Ahimsa is an expression of our concern that our own and other’s humanity be
manifested and respected; and
 We must learn to genuinely love our opponents inorder to practice Ahimsa.
3. Tapasya-willingness for self-sacrifice:
 A Satyagrahi [one who practices Satyagraha] must be willing to shoulder any
sacrifice which is occasioned by the struggle which they have initiated, rather
than pushing such sacrifice or suffering onto their opponent, lest the
opponent become alienated and access to their portion of the truth become
lost; and
 The Satyagrahi must always provide a face-saving way out for the opponents.
The goal is to discover a wider vista of truth and justice, not to achieve
victory over the opponent.
Process of Satyagraha
The success of a Satyagraha campaign to resolve any conflict rests on three
basic assumptions. They are:
 That there can always be found some elements of common interest to all the
contending parties;
  That the parties are or at least might be amenable to an appeal to the heart
and mind; and
 That those in a position to commence Satyagraha are also in a position to
carry it through to the end. If these prerequisites are fulfilled, the scene is set
for the process aimed at the required conversion to be initiated. This can
involve several steps, reasoning with the opponent, then persuasion through
self- suffering wherein the Satyagrahi [Seeker of Truth] attempts to dramatize
the issues at stake and to get through to the opponent’s unprejudiced
judgment so that he/she may willingly come again onto a level where he/she
may be persuaded through natural argument. This is the process of moral
appeal through self-suffering in lieu of coercion. Gandhi while he
summarizes this process says, “I seek entirely to blunt the edge of the tyrant’s
sword, not by putting up against a sharper edged weapon, but by
disappointing his expectation that I would be offering physical resistance”
[Gandhi, M. K. 1925, October 8. Young India]
 Hence if the attempts at conversion through these measures fail, the tools of
noncooperation or civildisobedience may be brought into play.
 Given this presentation of moral equivalent of War or Satyagraha as a
background paper, it is now left open to examine and test the efficacy of
Satyagraha by referring to certain recurring points of debate or controversy
 The role of the individual especially the charismatic personality in
Satyagraha
 Pacifism and Satyagraha
 Satyagraha as a way of life and as a process or weapon of conflict resolution;
and
 Satyagraha against incorrigible violence.
In the Twenty-First Century, Gandhian concept of forgiveness seems to
be central to the theoretical development of the emerging field of conflict
resolution. Forgiveness has been a topic of increasing interest both academically
and to practitioners. There seems to be a healing and liberating quality to
forgiveness that helps both individuals and societies move away from revenge and
toward reconciliation.In a word, forgiveness offers hope. In a time of tense conflicts
based on caste, class, ethnicity, race, gender, religion and territory forgiveness may
have,extraordinary value as a daily ethic, as well as a practical process.
After demolition of World Trade Centre youth of America have formed an
organization, named as we want peace no war and want to start a new dialogue, to
replace hatred by propagating friendship among the nations and different
communities. The United Nations has declared this decade as the Decade of Culture
of Peace and Non-violence for the Children of the World. In this context, Gandhian
thoughts on conflict transformation are gaining increasing global popularity.
Mahatma Gandhi believed that Satyagraha was the most powerful weapon
in a nonviolent struggle. Satyagraha involves defiance. It involves the wilful,
peaceful, breaking of laws that are unjust. It means picketing, protesting, squatting,
obstructing, challenging and publicly resisting wrongs. Since women were the most
nonviolent and ardent lovers of peace, it could be sharpened and extended as a
weapon in women’s struggles for justice and equality. To him the ultimate ahimsa
and Satyagrahawas when women, in vast numbers, rose up to put anend to the
destructive aspects of male dominance in society. Had the momentum of freedom
struggle not been slowed down, such mobilization could have attracted many more
women into public life. Political activity geared towards the transformation of
society into the holistic, integrated entity as Gandhi had visualized has not yet
crystallized.
Satyagraha is now just a word, a mere symbol, that serves no purpose for
the academic or the elite, or even the middle class feminist whose dialectic emerges
from a theoretical background far removed from Gandhi’s poor women who act
because they have no use for words to explain themselves. Among those women
who today have made Satyagraha a mode of struggle for a better world are the
meira peibi of Manipur who stand in clusters on the roadside outside their village
with flaming torches to protest against men who indulge in drugs and alcohol,
which are jointly ruining the youth of north eastern India. These women also raise
their voices against the excesses of the security forces and form a protective shield
around their villages against them. They do not quote Gandhi or term their struggle
as Satyagraha but their steadfast, powerful and peaceful picketing has all the
elements of struggle in the manner, Gandhi himself would have wished.
The ultimate aim of Satyagraha is to achieve success, despite his extreme
sufferings, with cheerfulness and love unlike passive resistance that is undertaken in
a situation of weakness and despair. Ultimately, Satyagraha offers a substantial and
effective opposition to injustice and tyranny in comparison to passive resistance.
Gandhian Methods of Organizing : Civil Disobedience and Philosophy of Non
violence
Civil Disobedience
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws,
demands or commands of a government or of an occupying power, without
resorting to physical violence. Mohandas K. Gandhi, often referred to as
Mahatma,the Great Soul, was born into a Hindu merchantfamily in 1869. He was
heavily influenced by theHinduism and Jainism of his devoutly religious mother.
She impressed on him beliefs in non- violence, vegetarianism, fasting for
purification, and respect for all religions. In 1888, Gandhi sailed to England and
studied to become a lawyer. His first job for an Indian company required that he
move to South Africa. The ruling white Boers (descendants of Dutch settlers)
discriminated against all people of color. When railroad officials made Gandhi sit in
a third-class coach even though he had purchased a first-class ticket, Gandhi refused
and police forced him off the train. This event changed his life. Gandhi became an
outspoken critic of South Africa’s discrimination policies. When the Boer
legislature passed a law requiring that all Indians register with the police and be
fingerprinted, Gandhi, along with many other Indians, refused to obey the law. He
was arrested and put in jail, the first of many times he would be imprisoned for
disobeying what he believed to be unjust laws. While in jail, Gandhi read the essay
“Civil Disobedience” by Henry David a 19th-century American writer. Gandhi
adopted the term “civil disobedience” to describe his strategy of non- violently
refusing to cooperate with injustice.
How did Civil Disobedience starts in India
On 31 st January 1930, Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to viceroy Irwin
stating 11 wide ranging demands that involved all classes of the Indian society. The
most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the Salt Tax. Salt was something
consumed by rich and poor alike and the Salt Tax and the government monopoly on
salt production revealed the most oppressive face of British rule.
Gandhi said that if his demands were not fulfilled by 11 th march, he would
launch a civil disobedience campaign. Irwin was unwilling to negotiate and so
Gandhiji started his famous Dandi march with 78 volunteers and walked 240 miles
from Sabarmadi to Dandi in 24 days. On 6 th april, he reached Dandi and
ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea water. This marked
the beginning of Civil disobedience movement.
Effects
 As the movement spread, foreign clothes wasboycotted and liquor shops
were picketed.
 Peasants refused to pay revenue and taxes and village officials resigned.
 In many places, people violated forest laws by going into reserved forests to
collect wood and graze cattle.
Gandhi-Irwin pact
 In such a situation, Gandhiji decided to call off the movement and entered
into the pact with Irwin on 5 th march 1931.
  He agreed to participate in the Second round table conference in London and
the government agreed to release the political prisoners.
 Gandhiji went to London for the conference, but the negotiations broke down
and the returned disappointed.
Renewal of the movement
 When he came back to India, Gandhiji discovered that Jawaharlal Nehru and
Ghaffar Khan were both in jail.
 The Congress had been declared illegal, and a series of measures had been
imposed to prevent meetings, demonstrations and boycotts.
 Gandhiji re launched the civil disobedience movement. For over a year, the
movement continued.
Philosophy of Non Violence
Non violence is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others
under every condition. With Gandhi, the notion of nonviolence attained a special
status. He not only theorized on it, he adopted nonviolence as a philosophy and an
ideal way of life.
Gandhi teaches that the one who possess nonviolence is blessed. Gandhi feels
that violence is not a natural tendency of humans. It is a learned experience. There
is need for a perfect weapon to combat violence and this is nonviolence. Gandhi
understood nonviolence from its Sanskrit root “Ahimsa”. Ahimsa is just translated
to mean nonviolence in English, but it implies more than just avoidance of physical
violence.
Ahimsa implies total nonviolence, no physical violence, and no passive
violence. Gandhi translates Ahimsa as love. For Gandhi, nonviolence is the greatest
force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than any weapon of mass
destruction. Gandhi’s nonviolence is the search for truth. Truth is the most
fundamental aspect in Gandhi’s Philosophy of nonviolence. His whole life has been
“experiments of truth”;
Non violence is ever lasting
 Gandhian strategy is the collection of inspirations, principles, beliefs and
philosophy. The fundamentals of Gandhi’s non violence theory, Jainism and
Buddhism were the most important influence. Both Jainism and Buddhism
preached non-violence as the basic principal of existence.
 Mahatma Gandhi was great national hero, who served the nation with truth
and non violence. Gandhi was against violence. Gandhi was in favor of non
violence; therefore he was against in any co- operation in war efforts.
  Whenever, we hurt some other living being through our thought, utterance or
action under non-cordial stipulation and non-apt learning, such an impure
spirit or act of destroying life of some other one, including the impure
tendency, utterance or presuming, is taken to be full of vice of violence.
 According to Mahatma Gandhi evils must be opposed at any cost. But he
insisted that the weapons must be non violent and moral ones. The adoption
of peaceful method made one superior and put the enemy at a disadvantage
but the condition is the opponent must be dealt with mutual respect and love.

MODULE: 3
STRATEGIES IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
1. Formation And Capacity Building Of Marginalized Groups:
As the capacity of poor people is strengthened (by utilizing and improving their skills,
changing their perceptions and attitudes and ensuring their active participation as responsible
participator) and their voice begin to be heard, they become “ claimants” who are capable of
demanding and paying for goods and services from government and private sector agencies.
Under these changed circumstances, the mechanisms to satisfy their needs will change as well.
Community capacity building is about promoting the ‘capacity’ of local communities
to develop, implement and sustain their own solutions to problems in a way that helps them shape
and exercise control over their physical, social, economic and cultural environments.Community
capacity building is the continuous process required to foster the pride. Community capacity
building grants support community organizations to provide programs and projects that respond to
local needs and make a positive contribution to community development.
2. Community Level Institutions And Organisations
3. Asset Based Community Development (ABCD):

Asset Based Community Development builds on the assets that are found in
the community and mobilizes individuals, associations, and institutions to come together to realise
and develop their strengths. Asset based community development (ABCD) is a localised and
bottom-up way of strengthening communities through recognising, identifying and harnessing
existing 'assets' (i.e. things like skills, knowledge, capacity, resources, experience or enthusiasm)
that individuals and communities have which can help to strengthen and improve things locally.
Instead of looking at what a community needs or lacks, the approach focuses on utilising the
'assets' that are already there.
 4. Leadership Building And Networking

Leadership building is an appropriate local leadership that allows communities,

through their members, to take responsibility for their own development.
Networking is also the social work strategy practiced to bring diverse social
structures together to accomplish a common purpose or shared goal. Networking involves
establishing coordinated and collaborative relationships in order to access the resources of other
persons and social systems. Social workers network human service organizations, other social
structures like business and industry and influential community leaders. Networking promotes
collaboration in identifying service gaps and barriers and encourages inter-agency planning to
address unmet service delivery needs. Networking in a community while working with the people
the participation of the people strengthens or increases the power of the people. At times support
from like minded people or organization has to elicit so that a pressure is built against the
oppressive force and to create pressure and increase the bargaining power for which networking
with other people and organization is done by the community organizer.
Although, the problem of unionizing / organizing the poor is complicated. But there are
examples where the poor have organized themselves on the basis of common economic interests
and thereby developing a counter weight that offsets their lingering import once in local
government or by formation of restrictive organizations based on interest groups, small farmers,
co-operatives, landless workers, unions, association of women organization, rural youth brigrades
or through organization of political disadvantaged for direct political action as in case of Tanjore
in Tamil Nadu.
5. Awareness Generation

Generating community awareness refers to the degree that people generally know about
each other, about social norms and peoples different roles within the community. The strategy for
generating community awareness should be designed and implemented with a clear understanding
of local perspectives and requirements with materials reflecting local conditions in a community.
The strategy should target all sections of the society including decision makers,
professionals, public and individuals living in vulnerable areas. The methodology for awareness
generation are educational curriculum, social networking, social media, workshops, seminars,
orientation programmes quiz , talks , presentations, door to door awareness campaigns, debates
etc.
6. Local Services Development
7. Advocacy And Coalition Building
 Advocacy involves ‘pleading and fighting for the service of the clients, whom the service
system otherwise rejects. It requires seeking different interpretations or exceptions to rules and
regulations, to clients’ rights to services and undertaking aware above the blockages to clients in
receiving or using an agency’s services. In advocacy, the worker speaks on behalf of client.
Before engaging in advocacy a worker must first be sure that the client(s) desire(s) the worker to
intervene in this manner. The client should clearly understand the risks involved and be
motivated to use the service(s) if it is obtained. Secondly, the worker must carefully assess the
risks involved for the client if advocacy is used.
Coalition building is the temporary formation of a group of individuals, nations etc.
Coalitions are broad groups that bring together people and organisations from throughout the
community, including many groups, that may not normally work together.
Advocacy coalitions are alliances of people around a shared policy goal. People associated
with the same advocacy coalition have similar ideologies and worldviews and wish to change a
given policy (concerning health, environmental, or many other issues) in the same direction.
2. SKILLS REQUIRED IN COMMUNITY ORGANISATION PRACTICE
Community practice applies practice skills to alter the behavioral patterns of community
groups, organizations, and institutions or people‘s relationships and interactions with the
community structures.
One of the major tasks of the community organizer is to assist the people in arriving at a
solution to the problem. The organizer is capable of identifying the problem and making the people
also to identify, analyze, provide priorities, select an appropriate priority, rally possessions, make a
plan of action, implement, monitor, evaluate, vary, and continue.
SKILLS:
 Interaction Skill
 Skills In Information Gathering And Assimilation
 Community Mobilization
 Resource Mobilization
 Advocacy Skill
 Conflict Resolution
 Documentation
 Networking
 Training And Facilitation
1. Interaction Skill
The community organizer transfers or transmits information, thought, knowledge etc. to the
members of the community. Sharing of information enables the community to be better prepared
and empowered with information. The communication enables better interaction which leads to
a healthy relationship and cooperation for further action and response. The communication takes
place through individual get in touch with, group meetings, group discussions, public meetings
etc. The community organizer in order to disseminate the information to the people can use
dissimilar techniques like skit, role plays, street plays, and audio and video shows.
2. Skill In Information Gathering And Assimilation
Information gathering refers to gathering information about the issue you‘re facing and the
ways other organizations and communities have addressed it. The more information you have
about the issue itself and the ways it has been approached, the more likely you are to be able to
devise an effective program or intervention of your own. Information about the community is
gathered through many ways or tools such as survey, questionnaire, schedule etc.
3. Skill in Community Mobilization
The process in which a group of people become aware of shared concern or common need
and decide to take mobilization in order to create shared benefit. It is a continual process that
involves education, organization and communication which together led to community
mobilization.
4. Skill In Mobilization Resource
To implement the plan of action the required resources are to be assessed, identified and
mobilized. The resources may be in terms of time, money, manpower and material.
5. Advocacy

The role of the advocate is to a represent or persuades the members of the community and
prepares them to be a representative so as to represent the issues to the concerned authorities to
bring in relation to the solution to the unmet needs. The needs and troubles of the people have to
be represented and the required support and networking obtained in order to augment the
pressure on the oppressive forces. The community organizer speaks on behalf of the community
when community is unable to do so, or when community speaks but no one listens. The advocate
represents the interests of the community to gain access or services or to improve the excellence
of services which may be hampered through other forces.
6. Networking

In a community while working with the people the participation of the people strengthens
or increases the power of the people. At times support from like-minded people or organization
has to elicit so that a pressure is built against the oppressive force. This helps to create pressure
and augment the bargaining power for which networking with other people and organizations is
done through the community organizer.
 7. Training And Facilitation

Capability building of the people and the personnel of an organization is significant while
working with the community. In the procedure of capability building the community organizer
has to be a good trainer. The community organizer has to use his training ability and skills in
this regard.
Facilitation skills are the abilities you use to provide opportunities and resources to a
group of people that enable them to make progress and succeed. Some examples include being
prepared, setting guidelines, being flexible, active listening and managing time.Facilitation is a
leadership skill designed to help make groups perform more effectively by asking the leadership
skills and potential of all members.
8. Skill in Conflict Resolution

Problems of the community involve the people affected by the problem and the others who
are the causes for the problem. Therefore, there could be a conflict between these two groups or
between the people and the system. The organiser is equipped with the skill for identifying the
conflicting situation and making the people to understand the conflict and then work out the
ways and means to find solutions to the conflict.
9. Documentation

The process of preparing documentation focuses the assessment and understanding of the
client's goals. It provides the starting point with the client for subsequent intervention and
serves as a method of evaluation for the intervention. Documentation is a key to ensure that
practice decisions are well considered. Documentation is the communication that happens
between social workers and others who may be working with their clients such as
health care professionals, courts, teachers or therapists. ... It provides the starting point with the
client for subsequent intervention and serves as a method of evaluation for the
intervention. Documentation is a key to ensure that practice decisions are well considered.
Good documentation establishes accountability and evidence of the services provided.
3. PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)
What is participatory rural appraisal?
• Participatory – Means that people are involved in the process in deciding how
something is done.

• Rural – The techniques can be used in any situation, urban or rural, with both
literate and illiterate people.
 • Appraisal – the finding out of information about problems, needs, and
potential in a village. It is the first stage in any project.

PRA is a set of methods and techniques that development practitioners use in

the field to be able to collect data and information. It is fairly quick. Easy to collect
any data\ information you need. It enables you to get closer to the rural community,
which makes way for you to plan-plan in a participatory mode, using the data the
villagers gave you. PRA is a favourite tool with many NGOs, and it is part of
planning exercise in many government programmes over 2 decades. PRA is a set of
methods and tools to collect data and information about a situation relatively
rapidly. It is an approach which has certain principles. It brings reliable data within
a short span of time. It enables getting closer to the community.

Participatory rural appraisal is a citizen-centred method of development,

which aims to empower communities by engaging local residents in the processes
of identifying issues, implementing solutions, and monitoring evaluation. PRA is a
growing combination of approaches that enable vulnerable people to share,
enhance, and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and act and to
monitor and evaluate. Participatory Rural Appraisal was first developed in India
and Kenya during the 1980s; it has been mainly used by non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) working on the grass-root level. The sole purpose of
Participatory Rural Appraisal is to enable development partners, government
officials, and local people to work together to plan context-appropriate programs.
PRA entails substantively involving local people in project selection, design,
planning and implementation.

While RRA mainly aims at extracting information, Participatory Rural

Appraisal emphasizes empowering local people to assume an active role in
analyzing their own living conditions, problems, and potentials in order to seek a
change in their situations. These changes are supposed to be achieved by collective
action, and the local communities are invited to assume responsibilities for
implementing many, if not most, of the activities. The members of the Participatory
Rural Appraisal team act as facilitators. It is not the external experts but the local
people themselves who ‘own’ the results of the Participatory Rural Appraisal
Workshop. Therefore an important principle of Participatory Rural Appraisal is to
share the results of the analysis between the Participatory Rural Appraisal team and
the community members by visualization, public presentations, and discussions
during meetings. Participatory Rural Appraisal is an exercise in communication and
transfer of knowledge.

Principles of PRA

 Reversal of Learning- we learn from villagers the situations and conditions.

 Learning rapidly and progressively, with flexible use of methods,
opportunism, improvisation, and iteration, not following a blueprinted
programme but adapting in a learning process.
 Do not get a precise information- ensure that the data given is approximately
correct , reliable and true.
 Cross- check the data with others to ensure its validity.
 Ensure sequencing in your line of questioning.
 Do not interrupt unless to you seek some clarification , more description , or
explanation.
 Listen. Learn. Record.
 Use the information for planning.

Fundamental Principles:

1. Triangulation: relates to the use of more than one, often three, sources of
information for validation. In order to obtain information, there is no way that can
be termed the "best." Therefore, in order to improve accuracy of information,
triangulation becomes an important element of RRA.

2. Optimal ignorance: means knowing the difference between what is worth

knowing and what is not, enabling the collection of information that is required for
the research projects. This avoids collection of too much irrelevant data.

3. Appropriate imprecision: In conventional surveys, many of the data collected

have a degree of precision that is really unnecessary. It is often more useful to
obtain causes of problems, trends and directions of change, rather than accurate
information on the absolute numbers affected by the problem.

4. Rapid and progressive learning: can occur because of the exploratory and
iterative nature of RRA. Many new issues are raised along with better insights into
the problems. However, it is these new issues and insights that lead to an
understanding of the real problems and their solutions.
5. Learning from, and along with, rural people: Local perceptions and
comprehension of situations and problems are essential to learn and understand,
since the intention is to plan programmes that are viable and acceptable to the local
inhabitants. The knowledge base of local inhabitants must be tapped in order to
avoid misconceptions about the lives and constraints of this population. Also, by
involving the local community in both defining community needs and identifying
possible solutions, the people develop a "sense of ownership" of the activity. This
reduces the possibility of failure.

Importance of PRA

1. Target group’s real priorities are identified: In PRA, the target group
i.e. local people are asked about the immediate problems, that they are
facing. The outsiders do not impose their own solutions on these problems;
rather they explore the solutions with the local people in which they are
really interested.

2. Delegation of responsibilities: PRA encourages self-reliant development

with most of the responsibilities to manage and execute the developmental
activities done by local people. This creates a sense of ownership and
enthusiasm among the local people and thus the efficiency to achieve the
goal also increases.

3. Motivation of local development workers: The local development

workers of non-governmental organizations, government or other agencies,
who are involved in the developmental projects or programmes, get
motivated through their participation in PRA activities, by knowing the
grass-root level problems and priorities of the people. PRA helps to ensure
better understanding and commitment of local workers; in return people at
administrative and organizational levels also become aware about the
requirements and priorities of workers and community.

4. Use of local resources: PRA encourages participation of the local people

and they design the activities by keeping in mind the availability of the
resources that are present in their surroundings. This makes complete use
of existing local resources like manpower, time, material resources and
others.

5. Sustainable developmental activities: As local people plan and execute

the activities themselves and which are technically, environmentally,
 socially and financially appropriate to local conditions, which lead to more
sustainable developmental activities.

6. Brings desirable behavioral changes: PRA methods encourage

participation by providing visual basis like resource map, which stimulates
the thought process and encourages local people to offer their views which
are appreciated and included in the activities, increasing their confidence to
participate more.

7. Use of indigenous knowledge: Every community has an indigenous

knowledge system which it acquires through work experience and solves
problems in its own specific situations. This knowledge is shared by the
local people of community while participating in the activities.

PRA TOOLS:

1) Semi-Structured Interview:

A semi-structured interview is there for an informal relaxable discussion

based around it predetermined the topic. Semi-structured interviewing starts with
more general questions or topics. Before beginning of an interview the interviewer
must have a small checklist of issues on which questions can be asked. Once
interview starts other relevant questions can be added to check list this will help in
enriching discussion of a theme by moving from one aspect to another. It is always
better to have a team including a member from each discipline

A semi-structured interview is a meeting in which the interviewer does not

strictly follow a formalized list of questions. Instead, they will ask more open-ended
questions, allowing for a discussion with the interviewee rather than a
straightforward question and answer format. Interviewing is one of the main
techniques used in development studies. Participatory methods have contributed to
adjusting the interview to make it more conversational, while still controlled and
structured. This is the semi structured interview (SSI) whereby only some of the
questions and topics are predetermined, whilst the majority of questions will be
formulated during the interview. Questions are asked according to a flexible
checklist and not from a formal questionnaire. SSIs tend to be conducted alongside
other exploratory and participatory techniques, and are used to complement the
participatory survey methods with in-depth information. SSIs often take time to
prepare, and to conduct on a one to one basis, and therefore should be used in
addition to the group survey methods, but are useful in extracting information from
particular members of the community.

2) Participatory Map

Participatory maps are usually prepared by villagers. It helps PRA teams/

outsiders to study Geographical boundaries, roads, water resources, houses, schools,
other physical and natural resources. This is very useful for developing
participatory Village Development Plan or for natural resource management.

Maps can be used to identify the comparative location and importance of

different resources within an area. They can examine a great breadth of subject
matter, and allow for a range of different types of map to be produced for one area
or for comparative analysis by different groups within the same area.

Participatory maps of two types:

(a) Social map: Social map is a diagram depicting(represent by drawing) village

layout, roads, human habitation, post office, School ,temple, Anganwadi Centre
,cattle ,common facilities etc. Social map is not drawn to scale. The chief feature of
a social map is that it is a big help in developing a board understanding for the
various faces of society reality vice-versa social stratification demographics
settlements pattern social infrastructure etc.

Social maps can be used to locate houses, services and infrastructure within an area.
Maps should be used as a visual stimulant, to identify the perameters faced by local
people and to facilitate discussion about the importance people place on
infrastructure provision etc. The most popular method in Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA) social mapping explores where and how people live and the
available social infrastructure.Social map is different from other regular maps in
significant ways. For one, it is made by local people and not by experts.

Steps: The process for social mapping should include the following steps:

1. Consultation with the local community to identify an appropriate time and place
for the exercise. Ensure that the time and location is suitable (good size, convenient,
comfortable for all members of society) for as many people as possible.
2. Explain the purpose of the exercise to the participants. Ask them to begin by
drawing the main physical features of their locality. Let them use whatever
materials they choose (local or other materials) as creatively as possible.

3. Watch the process carefully and take detailed notes. Don’t rush things

4. Keep track of who is actively involved – to which section of society do they

belong? Who is being left out? Take steps to involve them.

5. You are just a facilitator — intervene only when necessary, like when
participants are going through a rough patch.

6. It is important not to disrupt this process – wait for a good time in the process if
you must add or clarify anything. Ask them: “What about …”, “What does this
symbol represent?” etc.

7. When they have finished mapping, ask some people to identify their houses in
the map.

8. Identify and number the household details you need according to the goal of the
exercise, like caste composition, school age children, etc.

9. Take a look at the map and clarify: ask specific questions on parts that are
unclear to you. Copy the map made by participants onto a large sheet of paper
immediately, with all details.

10. Triangulate the information generated with others in the locality.

(b) Resource map: Resource map focuses on the natural resources in the locality
and depicts land,, Hills, rivers ,fields ,vegetation, degraded lands, pastures, water
resources , Forest areas etc. A resource map in PRA is not drawn to scale. A
resource map reflects how people view their own locality in terms of natural
resources.

A resource map in PRA is not drawn to scale. It is done not by experts, but by
the local people. The local people are considered to have an in-depth knowledge for
the surroundings where they have survived for a long time. Hence the resource map
drawn by the local people is considered to be accurate and detained. It is important
to keep in mind, however, that it reflects the people’s perception rather than precise
measurements to scale.
 3) Transect Walk

A transect walk is an exploratory work which is undertaken by

multidisciplinary team of scientist along with village people to observe, crosscheck
and critically examine and record minute details of particular area physically. It is
generally done after a resource map and, therefore, helps in triangulation. The
purpose is to get an idea about farming practices, cropping patterns etc. to get cross
sectional view of the village. During transect walk carry out some task like asking
questions, recording information drawing sketches collecting leaves grasses etc.

Transect is another PRA method used to explore the spatial dimensions of

people’s realities. It has been popularly used for natural resource management. It
provides a cross sectional representation of the different agro- ecological zones and
their comparison against certain parameters including topography, land type, land
usage, ownership, access, soil type, soil fertility, vegetation, crops, problems,
opportunities and solutions. Though natural resources remain the focus of any
transect, this does not mean that there is no place for the depiction of social aspects.
Various social aspects for e.g., the caste and ethnic determinants of a settlement
access and control and gender-related dimensions are captured in detail, depending
upon the objectives of the exercise. A transect is different from resource map
despite areas of overlap. The resource map provides a bird’s eye view of the locality
with a focus of natural resources. A transect, however depicts a cross sectional view
of the different agro- ecological zones and provides a comparative assessment of
the zones of different parameters. It is generally done after a resource map and,
therefore, helps in triangulation. It also helps in taking forward the process of
problem identification and planning for the development of the natural resources in
the area.

4) Venn Diagram:

Venn diagram is a visual method to represent the role of individuals or

institutes and degree of their importance in the process of decision making and their
performance. In the diagram, the size and distance of circle from Standard indicates
importance of facilities to the village.

Venn diagrams are used to depict key institutions, organizations and

individuals, and their interaction with the local community. Key players in decision
making are shown, and institutions analyzed can be both local ones internal to the
community, and external ones which have a local influence. On the Venn diagram,
each institution is represented, usually by a circle. The size of the circle represents
the importance, significance or power of that institution and the degree of overlap
between the circles represents the level of interaction that occurs. The
organizations, individuals and decision makers are represented on circular cards
rather than drawn directly onto the paper, as this leads to greater discussion and the
potential to move organizations around as consensus is reached on their importance
and the amount of contact. In the rural transport context, Venn diagrams can be
used to demonstrate the interaction between local villagers, transport operators and
local government for example, to demonstrate the marginalization of the rural poor.

5) Trend Analysis:

Trend analysis is a participatory technique to record the key positive and

negative events and trends in the history of the village. It is used to understand
people's perceptions and patterns of change regarding specific issues /matters over
time in a community. This process may involved comparing past and current crop
productivity levels, cost of production, soil fertility ,rates of erosion ,income levels
,agricultural labour force and environment in allied enterprises. Trend analysis, a
time-related method in participatory rural appraisal (PRA), helps to analyse the
changes and trends in the life of an individual, family, institution, systems, practices
and community.
6) Seasonal Analysis:

Seasonal analysis is also called seasonal calendar, seasonal activity profile

and seasonal diagram. Seasonal diagram is one of the popular PRA tool that has
been used for temporal analysis across annual cycles, with months or seasons as the
basic unit of analysis. It reflects the perception of the local people regarding
seasonal variations on a wide range of items. It is applied to get an insight in to
seasonal variations in rural areas related to agriculture, rainfall pattern, crop
rotation, folder and fuel availability, labour availability, insect-pest attack, lean
period, fallow period etc.
Seasonal diagrams, however, are not based on statistics, though they may be
triangulated against secondary or primary data in order to verify the information
generated. Seasons are an integral part of people’s lives and exert an important
impact upon the livelihood of the local people, particularly in rural areas. Seasonal
diagrams have been used to explore what happens during the year and when.
Quantification and depiction of the magnitude of the various activities adds to their
utility and richness.
 7) Wealth Ranking Objectives:

It investigate perceptions of wealth differences and inequalities in a

community . To identify and understand local indicators and criteria of wealth and
well-being. Wealth ranking enables villagers to divide households in the community
according to economic and other 'well-being' categories. This helps identify target
group members for projects, specifically the poorest sections of a society. It also
subdivides larger groups for further PRA discussions. Differences in wealth and
particularly well-being affect people’s perceptions and coping strategies. It is
important to understand this prior to further appraisal or planning.
Steps:
1. A numbered list is made of all the households in the community.

2. To sort the cards in as many piles as there are wealth categories in the
community, using their own criteria.

3. After sorting, ask the informants for the wealth criteria for each pile and
differences between the piles. Assure the informants of confidentiality, so as
not to cause bad feelings within the community.

4. List local criteria and indicators derived from the ranking discussion.

PRA is a flexible, low cost and time saving set of approaches and methods
used to enable workers to collect and analyze information in terms of past, present
and future situations to understand the rural populace and the condition that exists
in rural areas which would provide a thorough and comprehensive idea regarding
problems, potentials, resources and solutions to formulate realistic development
practitioners to achieve the desired goals within specific time (Chambers1992).
4. RECORDING AND DOCUMENTATION
Community (or stakeholder) profiles are a useful way of developing an
understanding of the people in a geographical area or a specific community of
interest. This understanding can assist in the development of a community
engagement plan and influence who the key stakeholder groups are and how a
project develops. Profiles can illustrate the makeup of a community and could
include information about the diversity within the community, their history, social
and economic characteristics, how active people are (i.e. the groups and networks
used) and what social and infrastructure services are provided. A community profile
can also provide information on the level of interest community members may have
in being actively involved in a project and their preferred method of engagement.
 Recording in social work has been recognized as a vital component of
professional and component practice by a professional social worker in agency,
private and community setting.
Community Profiling
Definition
According to Hawtin and percy-smith defined community profiling as “A
comprehensive description of needs of a population that is defined, or defines itself,
as a community and the resources that exist within that community, carried out with
the active involvement of community itself, for the purpose of developing an action
plan or other means of improving the quality of life of community.”
Purpose of Community Profiling
The purpose of a community profiling is to enable mission members to
develop a sufficient understanding of the community as a whole to be able to:
 Decide which household livelihood strategies to investigate in more detail;
 Decide which local institutions might be important for household livelihood
strategies and need to be investigated in more depth;
 Understand the context in which households and local institutions operate so
that they can identify linkages
 Ultimately, design and implement more effective and sustainable projects.
 Could include a range of information
 Means to develop relationships and build capacity

RECORDING
A record is a document or other auditory or visual product, intended to be
used primarily as a working tool by an organization or individual, and which
performs following function;-
a. It gives an account of something which has taken place.
b. It defines person, group or thing.
c. It contains factual description, analysis, instruction, direction, opinion, suggestion
or recommendation.
d. It sets forth plans for future.
A record may be not only textual document, but it may be a chart graph,
map, blueprint, photograph, micro-card, film, slide, recording or other products
intended to be heard at some time in future. It is generally unpublished and for use
of primarily within the organization or some other group, rather than for use of
general public.
Objectives
Records are used in every of organized human relationship- government, business,
religion, education, social welfare.
 Community organization are to be distinguished from administrative records(
such as minute, mailing lists, financial statements).
 Community organization records are specialized records relating to the
practice of community organization.
 Hence there are different types of the records as the community differs.

Types:
1. Administrative Records:
Records which pertain to the origin, development, activities, and
accomplishments of the agency. These generally fall into two categories: policy
records and operational records. Policy Records: Records that relate to the
organization such as plans, methods, techniques, or rules which the agency has
adopted to carry out its responsibilities and functions. These include three basic
categories. 1. Organizational Documents: Budgets and budget planning records,
fiscal records, organizational and functional charts. 2. Governing Documents:
Manuals, directives, orders, and interpretations issued from top authority levels,
correspondence files of high-level officials, regulations, circulars, instructions,
memoranda or regular issuances that establish a course of action, and staff studies
or special reports relating to methods of workloads and performances. 3. Reporting
Documents: Annual reports, periodic progress or summary reports, special reports
or accomplishment, transcripts of hearings, minutes of meetings and conferences,
and agency histories.
2. Operational Records:
Records are necessary to implement administrative policies, procedures,
and operations. The operational value is the usefulness of a record in the conduct of
an organization's business. Examples include mandates, procedural records, or
records that give direction. Process recording The process recording in community
organization is a type of recording which may be applied any diary or case history
type of record. The usual diary or case history record is narrative records and the
major emphasis is on what happened. The process records attempt to incorporate
the community organization process in to records; that is not only tells what
happened, but it lays emphasis on how and why various things happened, and how
 the worker made use of the community organization process. Advantages The
process record is more complete than the ordinary native records and it therefore
gives the reader better understanding of what happened and why and how it
happened. It lays special emphasis upon the social- psychological aspects of
community organization and upon individual, group and iner group relationship.
The process records reveals much more Disadvantage This records are extremely
long, its time consuming and expensive. The selection of material for process
recording seems to be highly subjective. Data banks Data bank may also refer to an
organization primarily concerned with the construction and maintenance of such a
database. Data bank is a repository of information on one or more subjects – a
database – that is organized in a way that facilitates local or remote information
retrieval and is able to process many continual queries over a long period of time.
Monitoring reports and evaluation reports Both monitoring reports and
evaluation reports are used to assess the performance of projects, institutions and
programmes set up by governments, international organisations and NGOs. Its goal
is to improve current and future management of outputs, outcomes and impact.
Monitoring report: It is collection and analysis of information about a project or
programme. It is a continuous assessment of programmes based on early detailed
information on the progress or delay of the on-going assessed activities. Evaluation
report: It is an examination concerning the relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and
impact of activities in the light of specified objectives. it is the periodic,
retrospective assessment of an organisation, project or programme that might be
conducted internally or by external independent evaluators.
Documentation of Community Organization Process (Documentation Of Best Practices,
Case Studies)

SUMMARY

Documentation is an essential component of good social work practice. The social

worker viewed as a mechanism to facilitate theory building, research, and teaching. It is a tool
to protect clients and to protect in the event of an ethics complaint or lawsuit. Documentation is
a process of identifying , collecting and making publicly available existing records, such as
computer files, photographs etc. Documentation of the events for future reference and follow up
is absolutely essential. Any communication or any written representation and the report of the
dealings have to be recorded. This task is either done by the community organiser or delegated
the task to someone else.
Importance of Documentation Skills In Professional Social Work

 The process of preparing documentation focuses the assessment and understanding of the
client’s goals.
 It provides the starting point with the client for subsequent intervention and serves as a
method of evaluation for the intervention.
 Good documentation is a key to establish accountability and evidence of the services
provided.
 The process of documentation is useful for risk management purposes in supervision,
management and administration.
 Documentation plays a crucial role in any treatment setting. Documentation helps assure
continuity of care. There are many important moments in treatment. Proper documentation
can help the practitioner to recall those moments. Behaviors and emotions can help tell a
story; being able to discover patterns can help to uncover reasons for certain behavior.
 Documentation is a very simple tool to help any practitioner is unveiling patterns. It can
help track the progress in addressing thought patterns and unhealthy behaviors. If a
practitioner isn’t utilizing the tool of documentation it would prove to be very difficult to
make continual progress on any one area, let alone multiple areas.
 Thorough documentation helps to assist the clients subsequent care. It’s important for
practitioners, who may serve the client down the line, have proper information. Without
meaningful documentation, it would prove difficult for any future practitioner to continue
timely progress.
 It is important to identify patterns and track the clients progress; if the new practitioner isn’t
aware of the knowledge, insight, and progress you have made, it would be a hindrance to
any further progress until the practitioner is able to discover and the learn the insight on
their own. This is not only a determent to the subsequent practitioners but to your client as
well.
 Having worked for some time in utilization review documentation is the single most
important tool. Documentation helps to determine if services are being productive and
should continue.
 On the flip side, if documentation is lacking it’s next to impossible to defend the
continuation of treatment. Many clients rely on insurance to be able to afford treatment and
other services. If documentation cannot support the services being provided it is the client
 who suffers when they no longer can have a means to pay for such services. It’s proven
difficult to present a case to continue treatment when there isn’t enough documentation
supporting it. Providers want to see the treatment being successful, and if not what is the
plan.
 Documentation assures the client is receiving the best possible treatment; it can determine
the availability for funds to afford the treatment. Documentation is part of the treatment
process itself. If documentation isn’t being done, or is inadequate it’s easy to determine the
client isn’t getting the best possible treatment because an integral part of the treatment
process isn’t being completed.
 Another role documentation plays is the collaboration among team members. Often clients
are seen by multiple members of the same team. One team member needs to be able to see
what other members have discussed, or begun working on. They need to be able to see what
goals the client is working on, and where they are in that process. Every team member has
specific specialties and documentation helps assure they can maximize the quality of the
services they provide.
 Documentation plays so and integral part in any practitioner’s process, it would wise to
maximize the usefulness of documentation. Documentation is so important in any treatment
process; the lack of documentation not only may seem negligible but could quite possible be
deemed negligible. It is impossible to plan a course of treatment without proper
documentation. It would be able to measure the growth or progress in treatment without
solid documentation. It’s unfair to the client, your team members, and any future
practitioners.
Role of Social Worker In Documentation

 According to NASW code of ethics, it is the ethical duty to document the services provides,
clients right to view their records, and social workers duty to protect clients records from
unauthorized access or use.
 Social work is a diverse profession meaning that the specifies of the record will be
determined by the area of practice and the nature the intervention.
 Social workers should aware the importance of documentation, systematic and individual
barriers.
 Identifying and addressing these barriers are significant steps towards ensuring high quality
professional documentation.
 Documentation is an essential skill within social work and can be an intervention in its own
right.
Principles of Documentation
 The document should be liable and ensure appropriate content in documentation, the social
worker should consider such issues.
 The content must have a careful line, striking a balance between too much and too little
information.
 The contents of the documents should be kept confidential.
 Objectivity, accuracy, simplicity and brevity should be the guiding factors in preparing
records.
 It should be written in very simple language and a simple type and Abbreviations should be
avoided.
Functions of Documentation
 To give account of something that has happened. It is substitute for an extension of
memory.
 To set forth factual description, analyzes, instructions, directions, opinions, suggestion and
recommendations.
 Assessment and planning
 A clear and comprehensive documentation of all case related facts and circumstances is
essential.
 It ensures that social workers have an adequate foundation for their clinical reasoning and
intervention plans.
 The data provide a reliable source of measuring performance and outcomes.
 Incomplete records may lead to inadequate planning and intervention, critical judgement
errors and poor outcomes for clients.
 Service delivery
 Records are necessary for competent delivery of clinical, community based and agency
based services and interventions.
 Continuity and coordination of services
 Documentation facilitates professional and interdisciplinary collaboration and co-ordination
of services.
 Supervision
 Supervisors, as well as administrators and agencies , can be held liable for the errors and
omissions of their staff if there is evidence of flawed supervision.
 Social work supervisors need to carefully document the supervision they provide.
 Service evaluation
 Facilitating clinical evaluation in individual cases, records laso provide essential data for
broader program evaluations.
 Accountability
 Social workers should to include details about the services they provide, the meetings they
attend, the supervision they offer, and the consultation they obtain.
 These new demands clearly illustrate the fit of documentation for accountability purposes.
Case Study
A case study is an in-depth study of a particular situation. It is a method used to narrow
down a very broad field of research into one easily researchable topic. The case study is a
systematic inquiry into an event or a set of related events which aims to describe and explain
the phenomenon of interest. Case studies are a great way to improve a learning experiences,
because they get the learner involved, and encourage immediately use of newly acquired skills.
Case studies help researchers make the difference between knowing what to do and knowing
how, when and why to do it. A successful case study analyses a real life situation where
existing problems need to be solved.
A case study is a story about something unique, special, or interesting—stories can be
about individuals, organizations, processes, programs, neighbourhoods, institutions, and even
events.1 The case study gives the story behind the result by capturing what happened to bring it
about, and can be a good opportunity to highlight a project’s success, or to bring attention to a
particular challenge or difficulty in a project. Cases might be selected because they are highly
effective, not effective, representative, typical, or of special interest.

MODULE 4
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION PRACTICE IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION IN HEALTH AND EDUCATION SETTING

The community organizer plays an important role in developing, assessing

and changing social policy a Community education encompasses all those
occupations and approaches that are concerned with running education and
development programmes within local communities, rather than within educational
institutions such as schools, colleges and universities. s it relates to specific groups.
As community organizers and capacity builders, community health workers
(CHWs) can promote community action and garner support and resources from
community organizations to implement new activities
Community Organization in Health Setting
The Community Organization participatory decision-making process that
empowers communities to improve health. It emphasizes active participation from
the community in identifying key health issues and strategies to address them.
Communities focus on their strengths and collectively mobilize to develop
programs to achieve health goals.
Characteristics of the Community Organization in health setting:
 Understanding the context and root causes of health issues
 Collaborative decision making and problem solving
 Focusing efforts on specific issues
 Actively engaging participation from various groups and organizations within
the community
 Developing and maintaining capacity and power to produce lasting change
 Providing feedback to the community
Core Competencies for Community Health Workers:
1. Core Competency 1: Outreach Methods and Strategies
Outreach is the process of contacting, engaging with, and helping people to learn
about and use resources to improve their health and well-being
2. Core competence 2: individual and community assessment
Assessment is the collection, synthesis, and use of information to help understand
the needs, strengths, and resources of the individuals and communities CHWs
serve.
3. Core Competency 3: Effective Communication
Effective and purposeful communication is listening carefully and communicating
respectfully in ways that help build trust and rapport with clients, community
members, colleagues, and other professionals.
4. Core Competency 4: Cultural Responsiveness and Mediation
CHWs act as cultural mediators. CHWs educate and support providers in working
with clients from diverse cultures.
5. Core Competency 5: Education to Promote Healthy Behaviour Change
Education for healthy behaviour change means providing people with information,
tools, and encouragement to help them improve their health and stay healthy over
time.
6. Core Competency 6: Care Coordination and System Navigation.
Coordination of care and system navigation for individuals and families means that
CHWs help people understand and use the services of health providers and other
service organizations.
7. Core Competency 7: Use of Public Health Concepts and Approaches
The knowledge base for CHW practice is strongly influenced by the field of public
health. Public health is a science-based discipline that focuses on protecting and
promoting population health, preventing illness and injury, eliminating health
inequities, and working to improve the health of vulnerable communities and
populations.
8. Core Competency 8: Advocacy and Community Capacity Building
Advocacy is working with or on behalf of people to exercise their rights and gain
access resources.
9. Core Competency 9: Documentation
CHWs help promote coordinated and effective services by documenting their work
activities, including writing summaries of client and community assessments
10. Core Competency 10: Professional Skills and Conduct
Professional skills for CHWs include how to handle ethical challenges as they
address legal and social challenges facing the clients and communities they serve.
Community Organization in Education Setting
Community organization in education setting promotes learning and social
development work with individuals and groups in their communities using a range
of formal and informal methods. Community educators have over many years
developed a range of skills and approaches for working within local communities
and in particular with disadvantaged people.
SET OF PRINCIPLES OF WHICH COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION IN EDUCATION
SETTING DEVELOPMENT RELATED ACTIVITIES SHOULD BE BASED ON:

 Empowerment
 Participation
  Inclusion
 Self-determination
 Partnership
Community health workers (CHWs) may support community organization
through targeted activities to garner support for policy and social changes.
Successful health promotion and disease prevention programs rely on involvement
from the community. When individual community members come together to
identify problems and strategies to address them, it increases the ability of the
program to affect change. Other benefits of community organization include
empowerment of community members, increased ownership among community
members for their health, and improved social support for achieving healthy
changes.
The purpose of community organization in education setting and
development is to develop the capacity of individuals and groups of all ages through
their actions, the capacity of communities, to improve their quality of life. Central
to this is their ability to participate in democratic processes.
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION PRACTICE IN RESIDENTIAL INSTITUTION,
LIVELIHOOD AND WORK

Community organization can be practiced in different communities or settings.

Community organization is applied when the community takes initiative in solving
the problems and meetings the needs. In such a situation the community plays
different roles in dealing with the various needs and problems. Usually within the
community either the interested people or the people who are affected by an issue
take up the lead in addressing the problem.
Community Organization means a process by which community identify its
need or objectives find the resources (Internal & / or External) to deal with these
needs or objectives, takes action in respect to them, and in so doing extends and
develops co-operative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community-
Murray G Ross
“Community practice is work to improve the quality of life for families and
communities and to increase social justice through social and economic
development, community organizing, social planning and progressive social
change” (Weil, 2005)
Purpose of Community Organisation
 Improving the quality of life of the community members
 Extending human rights
 Advocating for community rights
  Social and economic development
 Service planning for a new or a re-emerging need or a new class with specific
needs (such as, for example, HIV-infected people in a community, refugees
entering a community, etc.)
 Coordinating human services for communities in need (during disasters, for
example)
 Political and social action to protect the vulnerable sections of the community
 Social justice to achieve equality and opportunity
Role of Community Organizer In Community Development
Role of community organiser in different Settings will not be the same, and
moreover, the characteristics of the people in different settings are likely to vary.
Accordingly, the methods and techniques of community organisation and the roles
of community organiser will have to be used in such a way as to suit the differing
settings and characteristics of people.
The organiser can use different methods to identify, assess the need, analyse
and understand the situation. There are two levels of understanding, the first level is
the understanding of the community by the organiser and the second level is making
the community to understand their own situation.
Community Organization in Residential Institutions
Residential institution is defined to include a children’s home, dormitory,
hospital, jail, old people’s home (nursing home), orphanage, prison, or reform
school. Residential care institution" means a health care institution other than a
hospital or a nursing care institution which provides resident beds or residential
units, supervisory care services, personal care service, directed care services or
health-related services for persons who do not need inpatient nursing care.
1. Foster home
2. Outdoor youth program
3. Hospital
Community Organisation In Institutional Settings
The rise in the number of institutions there has also been an increasing
movement of children towards residential care. A frequently cited reason for
institutionalizing children is lack of access to quality schools in many rural and
semi-rural areas. Parents, unwilling to risk the poor education that is nearer to them,
en- roll their children in institutions much farther away, typically residential
institutions. Other factors also contribute to institutionalized childhood socio
economic strife, brought about by the breakdown of livelihood options in rural
areas, migration to the cities in search of livelihood, family circumstances like
abuse, abandonment etc.
Not only do various situations lead to institutionalization of children,
research also shows that placing a child in an institution is often the first choice in
situations of social, economic and emotional crisis, due to the belief that these
children will be offered a better life in residential care. This may not be necessarily
true, but is nonetheless an additional reason why children may find themselves in
residential homes rather than their own.
• Work Environment
• Daily Activities • Skills & Interests of Care Worker
Community Organization in Livelihood and Community Development.
A Livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and
social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is
sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain
or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not
undermining the natural resource base. The livelihood and community development
projects implemented by HPPI have a holistic approach encompassing many
components of health, education, skills training, capacity building and awareness.
Cross cutting areas of intervention under community development and livelihood
are:
Education: Educational initiatives for pre-schoolers, out-of-school children,
remedial training and adult literacy are routinely integrated into the projects.
Health: Promotion of good health is integrated in the projects through training,
awareness activities, health camps and check-ups and linking beneficiaries to
government schemes.
Women Empowerment: Projects under this segment engage in women
empowerment through education and training, capacity building, awareness
activities and facilitation of self-help groups and access to government schemes.
Skill Development: Training programmes on skill development are implemented,
to help improve the employability of the working population including school drop-
outs, semi-skilled and un-skilled workers. These programmes include vocational
training and digital literacy.
Agriculture: HPPI undertakes focused interventions in agriculture, horticulture and
livestock management. Such interventions have been designed to improve
efficiency in production systems, lower input costs, increase per capita output, and
improve food and nutritional security at household level.).
Services related to improving the access of migrants and their children to health
care which are provided by partner organisations include:
 Training of parents on child care and development;
 Awareness on reproductive health;
 Referral to health services;
 Organising mobile medical units to reach out to working children (aged 15-
17 years)
COMMUNITY-BASED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
(CBNRM)
Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) is a major global
strategy for enhancing conservation outcomes while also seeking to improve rural
livelihoods; however, little evidence of socioeconomic outcomes exists.
Meaning
Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) is a people-
centered approach to the integration of conservation of the natural resource base
(water, soil, trees and local biodiversity) and development to overcome poverty,
hunger and disease
Benefits of CBNRM
It was in 1997 that the Community-based Natural Resource Management
(CBNRM) project was established in Mozambique Africa, for the purpose of
empowering local communities to assume some level of control over how their
environments would be managed. This literally constituted a shift in power away
from the central government, and into the hands of local authorities who are best
equipped to maintain healthy natural resources and to make those resources
sustainable indefinitely.
That first CBNRM conference brought together representatives from high
levels of government, community members, and engineer types, who were all
interested in preserving local environments. The discussions at that conference and
in the four additional conferences since then, centered around how to deal with
natural resources such as forests and wildlife, as well as developing or
strengthening community-based organizations, and about how to add value to
resources such as forest products.
Advantages:
  Renewable resources will never run out.
 Non renewable resources can be recycled and be used for everyday products.
 Non renewable resources are easily obtainable.
 Non renewable resources are cheaper.
Disadvantages:
 Renewable resources are only available in certain parts of the world, eg
sunny places.
 Non renewable resources are scarce and will run out.
 Non renewable resources cause pollution.
 Renewable resources are expensive
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (World Commission on
Environment and Development, 1987:43). ...
What is the role of sustainable development?
There was a spirited and focused debate on the role of community
development in sustainable development, the opportunities and challenges, and the
sharing of information across sectors, themes and geography. It became clear that
the Sustainable Development Goals (hereafter SDGs) provide an excellent
framework for the exchange of ideas and experience between different community
development interests, as well as a huge opportunity for community development to
demonstrate it has a critical (in both senses of the word) role to play in the
successful realization of the SDGs across the globe. The old adage, think global, act
local remains as pertinent as ever, but with the SDGs adding social and economic
agendas to the former environmental one, and with community development adding
participation and inclusion to the mix there is great potential to challenge the
direction of global forces and return to a more equal, social and sustainable world.
IACD has an agreed position on the role of community development in
sustainable development. The key points are that the SDGs should be viewed in a
holistic way
 Causes of problems do not generally lie locally, but relevant action can be
taken locally
 The most vulnerable can and must be active players
 Consensus and partnership has to be built, while acknowledging and tackling
conflicts of interest
  Joined up planning is essential at local level, involving agencies alongside the
community voice
 The most vulnerable need free technical assistance, community organising
and education support – this being the priority for community development
Basic objectives of Sustainable Development:
The principle of sustainable development seeks to achieve the following three
basic objectives:
(1) To maintain production of goods and services for development and efficiency;
(2) Conversation and management of neutral resources including preservation of
bio-diversity and maintenance of biological integrity;
(3) Maintenance and enhancement of the quality of life adopting the principle of
equitable distribution of wealth and material resources.
These objective may respectively be called as economic, environmental and
social objectives of the principle of sustainable development.
From the environmental point of view, the objective of the principle of
sustainable development centres round three issues, namely, (i) to maintain
essential ecological processes, (ii) to preserve genetic diversity; and (iii) to secure
sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems.
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION PRACTICE IN VARIOUS SETTINGS :
WORKING WITH TRIBAL POPULATION , DISABILITY.
Definition of community organization
1. Lindeman: Lindeman’s book in the year 1921 was the first to appear on what
became known in North America as Community Organization. He defined
community organization as “those phases of social organization which
constitute a conscious effort on the part of a community to control its affairs
democratically, and to secure the highest services from its specialists,
organizations, agencies and the institutions by means of recognized
interrelations.”
2. Younghusband: In 1973, Younghusband defined community organization as
“primarily aimed at helping people within a local community to identify
social needs, to consider the most effective ways of meeting them and to set
about doing so, in so far as their available resources permit”.
The Meaning and Definitions of Tribe:
The word tribe is derived from Tribus, a Latin word meaning “a group”.
Dictionary meanings of a tribe range from considering them as:
a) Any aggregate of people united by ties of descent from a common ancestor,
community of customs and traditions, adherence to the same leaders, etc.,
b) A local division of an aboriginal people,
c) Division of some other people,
d) A class or set of persons, especially one with strong common traits or interests,
e) A large family.
Historically tribal communities have often been understood as exotic and
indicative of forbidden cultures that are ancient and need to be preserved. This has
led to some of their classifications since the colonial times and their categorization
into nomadic, criminal, vanvasi, adivasi etc. These terms are overridden by their
inclusion in scheduled tribes list- that by itself tries to build a category of tribes
known as the scheduled tribes. And also gives legitimacy to those listed as being
recognized by government as such. The numerous nomenclatures provided by the
sociologists, census officials and the government have only created confusion as to
how should tribes be categorized, understood and treated. All these have
implications for the mainstreaming of tribes that is actively being encouraged by all
those concerned with tribal communities, sometimes with positive outcomes and at
other times, deleterious to the very existence of tribes . Robert Redfield considers
tribe to be a small community and possessing characteristic features as;
i) Distinctiveness: where the community begins and where it ends is apparent. This
is expressed in the group consciousness of the people of the community
ii) Smallness: a compact community with a small population
iii) Homogeneity: all the persons do similar activities and have similar state of
mind. All persons have similar livelihood strategies, which continue over
generations,
iv) Self sufficiency: The community is self-sufficient and provides for most of the
activities and needs of its people.

Tribal Population in India:

The population of Scheduled Tribes number only 19 million people
distributed among 212 communities in the 1951 census. Their strength has
increased to 38 and 52 million in 1971 and 1981census. As per 2001 census, the
Scheduled Tribes population is 84.32 million, constituting over 8.2 percent of the
country’s population. Some tribes were temporarily accommodated in the other
backward classes’ category. In 1950 there were 212 and in the year 2003, there are
533 tribes as per notified schedule under Article 342 with largest of them being in
Orissa (62). Of the 698 scheduled tribes, seventy five are considered as primitive
tribes. They are considered more backward than scheduled tribes and continue to
live in pre-agricultural stage having very low literacy rates. The listing of tribes in
the schedule depends on whether synonyms and sub-tribes are treated separately or
not. There are also variations in the size of the communities, from 31 people of
Jarwa to over 7 million Gonds. The numerically small tribal communities
comprising of less than 1000 people are Andamanese, Onges and Toda etc. On the
other hand, tribes like the Bhil, Santhals, Oraon, Munda, Mina, Khond and Saora
and the like had more than 1 million population each.
The demographic and geographic spread has implications for the policies
and programmes they are subject to as well as their social and economic life. For
example large population of a tribe means that it is spread over a number of states
and therefore the same group is treated differently by different state policies Tribal
Communities and development programmes which influences its social and
economic structure. Also they may be educated in the language of the state in which
they reside – these have far reaching implications for questions of identity and
entity of the tribal communities.
Tribal Communities: Their Social and Economic Structure
a) Social Structure: The social structure is unique for each tribe. This comes
with the way the family is organized, the customs and beliefs and the place of
habitation, racial and linguistic features. There is a wide variation across the
communities with respect to the above. There are also wide variations with
regard to the particular social institutions that characterize all communities
such as their family, marriage and kinship relations as also their particular
modes of economy, that are much dependent on the ecological conditions of
living. Further the relationship of the community with the nature and the kind
of rituals associated with it is another facet that distinguishes them from other
communities.
The social life of the tribals revolves round the various activities for
common existence by sharing in common activities under the bonds of
relationship. Each tribe has its own structure and organization. As the tribals
form a small community of their own in a particular territory their relations
are direct and intimate. By no means such patterns of relations are sacrosanct
or unchanging. They are subject to the influences from changes in the
ecological condition or in the nature of relationship with other communities
or within their own. Thus the social structure is of dynamic nature.
 The social life of Indian tribes can be said to have a design with the
individual forming families, families forming lineages, lineages in sub-clans
or sub-local groups and sub-clans in clans or local group and clans in
phratries or territorial groups phratries in moieties; moieties in sub tribes and
finally sub-tribes making up the tribe. In this social design the smallest unit is
the individual who forms the minimum or the smallest group like family or
household. The smaller groups are combined into a larger one through
several levels of incorporation. It is not necessary that all the above social
units exist in every tribe.
Family
The Family is the basic social and economic unit. There are well established
roles for the various members of the family that are closely related to their authority
and power within their social group. The economic, political, ritual rights are also
associated with the development of the family. The various tribal communities
differ with respect to the nature of authority within the family and the group; the
nature of relations with outsiders; the kind of work allocation and distribution
within the families, the ritual and secular power exercised and so on. All of this is
dependent on the habitats they live in – that is the natural living conditions and their
relationship with it.
b) Economic Structure
In India tribals belong to different economic stages, from food-gathering to
industrial labour which presents their overlapping economic stage in the broader
framework of the stages of economy. A tribe is usually considered as an
economically independent group of people, having their own specific economy and
thus having a living, pattern of labour, division of labour and specialization, gift and
ceremonial exchange, trade and barter, credit and value, wealth, consumption
norms, capital formation, land tenure and good-tangible and intangible –economic
status. All these are significant markers for a special tribal economy in the broader
set-up of Indian economy. The interdependence between the cultural, social life and
the natural surroundings is of great significance in understanding tribal economy.
The economic life of the tribal communities has to be seen in the light of
non-monetary aspects that influence their living conditions. They have a very
simple technology which fits in well with their ecological surroundings and self-
dependent nature. Their economy can be said to be of subsistence type in which
there is assurance of subsistence livelihood to all the persons in the community.
This is achieved through the social determinations of labour and land allocation and
the social right to receive emergency material in times of need. Thus there is a
strong and persistent social control of production and distribution. They follow
what is known as “marginal economy”. This refers to the practice of different types
of occupation at one time by a group of people for their livelihood. That is a tribe
can indulge in all kinds of occupations to eke out its subsistence such as hunting,
food gathering, shifting cultivation, fishing, domestication of animals, horticulture,
and also some artisan work like production of crafts and other items required by
other communities in rural areas. The complexity of economic subsistence is
indicated by the combination of activities that they indulge in.
Also they may have linkages with other rural communities and their
economy. Thus, some of the tribes practice settled agriculture, and are in touch with
the other communities. They supply honey, medicinal plants, toys, baskets etc in
exchange for grains, cereals, clothes, etc. Thus they follow a basket of livelihoods
that is dependent upon the ecological cycle of the area they inhabit.
The mode of production in tribal economy is traditional, indigenous and
culturally predominant. This needs to be understood in its structural arrangements
and enforced rules for the acquisition and production of material items and services
in the context of their cultural, social and natural living conditions. Further there are
no class divisions within the tribes as the production relations are governed by the
social arrangements. They are culturally a social unit, with being an enterpriser and
worker as well as producer and consumer, all at the same time. The system of
distribution is linked to the barter system or mutual exchange.
DISABILITY

Disability is a societal imposition on people who have impairments, making

it more difficult for people to do certain activities or interact with the world around
them. Due to cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, and/or
sensory differences, disabled people are “unnecessarily isolated and excluded from
full participation in society.” As a result of impairments, people with disabilities
can experience disablement from birth, or may be labeled as disabled during their
lifetime. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
defines disability as:
Long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in
interaction with various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective
participation in society on an equal basis with others.
Pilot project to address disability among tribes:
Persons with disabilities face innumerable challenges, including
discrimination and limited access to education, health care, and livelihood
opportunities. In the case of tribespeople, those with disabilities suffer more owing
to acute poverty and isolation.
 The Disability Census 2015 conducted by the Social Justice Department
puts the number of persons with disabilities among the Scheduled Tribes at 16,639.
A project for disability management among tribes people will be piloted at
the Vithuragramapanchayat in the district as part of the Scheduled Tribes
Development Department’s Comprehensive Tribal Development programme. The
project for disability management in tribal areas is a component of the Statewide
Comprehensive Tribal Development programme under which need-based projects
are proposed to be implemented in 100 gramapanchayats.
Prepared by the Kerala Social Security Mission, the project for disability
management will adopt a holistic approach to achieve convergence of health and
social rehabilitation strategies to create a physical and social environment
conducive to the differently abled.
The pilot project will be implemented by the State Initiative on
Disabilities through preparation of individual care plans to provide medical
services, assistive devices, and continuous follow-ups.
In Vithura, of the 663 differently abled people, 88 belong to the tribal
community. These include people with cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, visual
and hearing impaired, kyphosis, dwarfism, locomotor disability, and speech and
language disability.
Tribal Policies in India
Tribal Policies in India is based on Isolation, Assimilation and Integration
and last Democratic Decentralization of Tribal People. The Government of India
has adopted a policy of integration of tribals with the mainstream aiming at
developing a creative adjustment between the tribes and non tribes leading to a
responsible partnership. The constitution has committed the nation to two courses
of action in respect of scheduled tribes:
• Giving protection to their distinctive way of life
• Protecting them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation and
discrimination and bringing them at par with the rest of the nation so that they may
be integrated with the national life. Thus by the Constitution Order 1950 issued by
the President of India in exercise of powers conferred by Clause9 (i) of Article 342
of the Constitution of India 255 tribes in 17 states were declared to be scheduled
tribes. Besides enjoying the rights that all citizens and minorities have the member
of the Scheduled Tribes have been provided with special safeguards as follows:
Some Protective Safeguards are:
  Educational safeguards-Article 15(4) and 29
 Safeguards for employment -Articles 16(4), 320(4) and 333
 Economic safeguards -Article 19
 Abolition of bonded labour -Article 23
 Protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation -Article 46
Some Political Safeguards are:
 Reservation of seats for ST in LokSabha and Assemblies-Article 330,332,164
 Appointment of Minister in charge of Tribal welfare
 Special provisions in respect of Nagaland, Assam and Manipur -Articles-
371(A),371(B) and 371
Some Developmental Safeguards are:
 Promoting the educational and economic interests of the Scheduled Tribes-
Articles 46
 Grants from Central Government to the states for welfare of Scheduled
Tribes and raising the level of administration of Scheduled Areas-Article 75.
Following the reorganization of states, the list of STs was modified by the
Scheduled Castes and Tribes List (Modification) order, 1956 on the
recommendations of the Backward Classes Commission. In the revised list 414
tribes were declared STs. Since the revision of the list in 1956 there have been
several proposals for fresh inclusions and deletion from the lists of the SC and STs.
Current Issues Facing Tribal Communities
Tribals are at the bottom of social and political ladder in India. In Post-
independent India, the requirements of planned development brought with them the
spectre of dams, mines, industries and roads on tribal lands. The major issues facing
them are:
1. Land Alienation
They were alienated from their land from colonial times. Their lands were
taken away in the name of development, or by money lenders for loan recovery.
Also reserving forests in the name of conservation also meant that tribals were kept
away from their habitats and livelihood base. The expansion of railways in India
heavily devastated the forest resources in India. In Andhra Pradesh, for instance, the
non-tribals own half of the tribal land. In Orissa 54% of land of tribals is lost to
non-tribals through indebtedness, mortgage and forcible occupation.
The land alienation often is a result of ignorance of tribals in getting their
land recorded properly, negligence of officials involved and sometimes sheer
corruption in evicting the tribals from their lands. The mining industry in Goa
undermined the tribal rights to cultivate by getting these lands on lease. Also
polluting both land and soil and the rivers make it impossible for tribals to continue
their subsistence livelihoods.
2. Poverty AmongTribals
Majority of tribes live under poverty line. Currently, the tribal communities
live in the most food insecure areas.
Tribals and Indebtedness: Tribals are heavily indebted to the local money lenders
because of their poverty.
Loss of access to Non Timber Forest Produce (NTFP)s
Deforestation, preference for man-made plantations in place of mixed forests,
regulatory framework, diversion of NTFPs and forests to industries, nationalization
of NTFPs, and exploitation by government agencies and contractors in marketing of
NTFPs, has meant loss of livelihood base for the tribal communities.
3. Displacement
Tribals are displaced from their livelihoods due to projects like large
irrigation dams, hydroelectric projects, open cast and underground coal mines,
super thermal power plants and mineral-based industrial units. In the name of
development, tribals are displaced from their traditional habitats and livelihoods
with little or no rehabilitation, and are rendered destitute and poor. In these large
development projects, tribals lose their land not only to the project authorities, but
even to nontribal outsiders who converge into these areas and corner both the land
and the new economic opportunities in commerce and petty industry.
4. Shifting Cultivation
Tribal communities practice shifting cultivation, a customary practice they have
been engaged in through generations. This is becoming difficult with less and less
forest land bring available to the communities.
5. Poor Quality of Governance
There is poor quality of governance that afflicts the tribal areas. Programme
delivery has deteriorated everywhere in India, but more so in tribal areas. There is
often a transfer of posts from tribal regions to nontribal regions.
6. Cultural Problems
Due to contact with other cultures, the tribal culture is undergoing a revolutionary
change. These have meant a degeneration of tribal life and tribal arts such as dance,
music and different types of craft, and have also raised questions of preserving
cultural identity.
7. Education
Educationally the tribal population is at different levels of development but overall
the formal education has made very little impact on tribal groups.
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION PRACTICE IN VARIOUS SETTINGS: WORKING
WITH RURAL AND URBAN VULNERABLE COMMUNITIES

Community organization can be practiced in different communities or

settings. The community can be classified as rural, urban and tribal on the basis of
geographical location. The other classification of the community can be based on
the caste, religion, occupation etc. These communities are under different settings
where community organization can be put into practice. Community organization is
applied when the community takes initiative in solving their problems and meetings
their needs. In such a situation the community plays different roles in dealing with
the various needs and problems. Usually within the community either the interested
people or the people who are affected by an issue take up the lead in addressing the
problem. In other words they form the community and undertake different roles in
solving the problems and consequently needs get fulfilled. But such a process does
not take place easily and hence someone has to take the lead. When the initiative is
not forthcoming from the community an external agent or an outsider or a
community organizer steps in and works with the social Work Intervention with
Communities and Institutions community. The roles are likely to vary according to
the settings, problems and needs. Community organization can be used by the
community organizer in different areas or settings like, rural, urban, tribal,
institutional, non-institutional settings. Whatever may be the settings, depending
upon the model of community organization like locality development, social
planning and social action, the community organizer has to apply different roles
respectively.
Settings of Community Organization
There are different areas where community organization has scope. The
community organizer can practice community organization in different settings.
The settings can be identified based on certain characteristics like location and the
nature of administration. Geographical Location -Rural, Urban, Tribal. The target
group with whom the community organizer is going to work with has to be
identified and understood. The needs and problems of the community .Role of
Community Organizer in Different Settings . Accordingly the methods and
techniques of community organization and the roles of community organizer will
have to be used in such a way as to suit the differing settings and characteristics of
people. The organizer can use different methods to identify, assess the need,
analyses and understand the situation. There are two levels of understanding, the
first level is the understanding of the community by the organizer and the second
level is making the community to understand their own situation. Different methods
and techniques can be used to understand and make the community to understand.
Participator Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Appreciative Inquiry can be more useful in
this regard.
In different settings depending on the needs and problems and the social
situation of the community the roles and strategies have to be changed. Moreover,
all the roles need not be applied in all the settings. In order to adopt different roles
the community organizer has to be very clear about the process or the steps
involved in the practice of community organization methods and skills and
accordingly the roles can be selected and applied.
Steps of Community Organization
Community organization has a series of steps. By following these steps one
would be able to apply the different principles, methods and models of community
organization.
•Assessment of the needs and problems-Community organizer has to know about
the needs and problems. At the same time he has to enable the people to make an
assessment of the needs and problems. In order to do this the community members
have to come forward and express their views for further action individually or
collectively. In this process the people get empowered by way of acquiring the
skills of analysis and raising the levels of consciousness.
•List the problems – All the identified needs and problems of the community are
listed by the community with the help of the community organizer. This is a process
which makes the people to understand their own situation. Realization of the needs
and problems will bring awareness about their own situation. The involvement of
the community in identifying the various needs and problems will increase the
participation of the people.
•Give priorities – All the needs and problems cannot be considered together for
further action. Therefore all the needs and problems are analysed for its severity,
magnitude, symptoms and causes based on which they are ordered and priority is
given to the needs and problems. The community after having identified the needs
and problems, analyze them and give priority and the order in which they have to be
taken up for further actions.
•Select a problem – From the priority list most urgent problem which needs to be
taken up immediately is selected. All the problems cannot be approached
simultaneously therefore there is need for selecting any one problem to initiate
further action. Based on the order of priority the first in the list is taken up for
working out solutions.
•Redefine the problem – The selected problem is redefined for better understanding
by the community. For better planning the problem has to be analyzed and defined
before taking any further step in addressing the problem. Many times one may look
at a phenomenon as a problem by its appearance or at the peripheral level, instead it
has to be further analyzed as to what is the real problem.
•Formulate achievable objective – The redefined problem is converted into
achievable objectives which will be considered for further action. At times the
objectives have to be split into many parts so that they could be converted into
programs and activities towards fulfilling the needs and solving problems.
•Work out the alternatives – Based on the objectives the different ways and means
are to be found out by the community through brainstorming. One should not be
content with a problem with one solution because it will limit the practice of
community organization. In order to solve the selected problem the community has
to generate maximum number of alternatives to address the problem.
•Select an appropriate alternative – Among the proposed alternatives one of the best
alternatives is selected for tackling the selected problem. To solve a problem there
could be many ways but there may be one best and suitable way or method by
which the problem could be easily solved.
•Work out a plan of action – In order to realize the selected alternative an action
plan is proposed in which the responsibilities are assigned and a tentative
organizational structure is prepared.
•Mobilization of resources – To implement the plan of action the required resources
are to be assessed, identified and mobilized. The resources may be in terms of time,
money, manpower and material. An estimate is made and the sources are identified
for mobilization.
•Implement the plan of action – After having made a plan of action along with the
resources, the plan is implemented. The implementation takes care of the time and
resources towards fulfilling the fixed goals.
•Evaluate the action – The implemented plan is evaluated to find out the success
and deviation of the action against the objectives.
•Modification – Based on the evaluation, necessary modifications are decided and
introduced. In order to bring about a permanent solution to the selected problem, it
is to be tackled affectively with the modifications suggested. These modifications
are proposed in order to find a permanently solution to the given problem.
•Continuation – The modified action plan is implemented and continued.
•Select the next problem – Once the selected need is fulfilled the next problem is
selected from the priority list.
Working With Rural and Urban Communities
Organizing a rural community in a mechanical way. “rural social organization
is the art of planning social relationships in the rural environment by use of the
methods of science” Rural community vitality depends on communities maintaining
adequate infrastructure, having access to services, enhancing business and
economic opportunities and establishing policy settings to foster outcomes. Vitality
also relies on communities "rethinking" assets, developing networks, building local
cooperation and acting on local passion and motivation. In addressing both these
aspects, current approaches to rural and regional development represent a partial
approach. Efforts largely focus on service provision, discrete initiatives,
information dissemination and provision of resources to meet perceived needs.
While these are crucial elements of rural development, a more comprehensive
approach is needed. A more comprehensive agenda involves engagement that helps
people act on existing motivation, includes greater recognition of frustration and
anger in regional areas, and helps people gain better access to information and
services. A broader approach would also re-examine agency assumptions, better
foster community confidence, provide more coordinated frameworks for discrete
initiatives, and establish community relationships beyond those of service delivery.
In implementing this expanded approach community developers face five
challenges - a greater recognition of community values, new forms of participation,
coping with perceptions, fostering community confidence and changes to the role of
government.
In any settings of community organization there must be community or a
group of people with needs and problems. In other words there is a general
discontentment which has to be focused and channelized in such a way that the
people come together, think together, plan together, implement and evaluate their
actions. In all the stages the community has to be fully involved and their capacity
increases as a result of access and control over resources and decision making.
Therefore in community organization the community organizer has to play different
roles in making the people to be on their own, without any dependency syndrome.
Rural area is differentiated from the urban, based on the population size,
density of population and occupation of the people. If any area the population is
more than 5000, the density is more than 300 per square kilometer and more than
75 per cent of the people are engaged in agricultural activities, such areas are called
rural area. Along with these characteristics if the geographical location in general is
in the hills occupied by tribals it is called the tribal area. In the case of urban area
the population is more than 5000, density is more than 300 per square kilometer and
more than 75 per cent are involved in non-agricultural activities. Among the people
inter-personal relationship and receptiveness is high and positive in rural and tribal
areas, whereas in urban area the primary relationship within the community is rather
low. Organizing rural and tribal people is less difficult compared to urban people.
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION PRACTICE IN VARIOUS SETTINGS :- (DISPLACED
POPULATION AND REHABILITATION, DISASTER RESPONSE)

Community plays an important role in the life of an individual. A community is

the organised social life of a locality. Community has been generating a sense of
belonging together".
Maclver defines community as "an area of social living marked by some degree
of social coherence.
Community Organisation
Community organisation can be practiced in different communities or settings.
Community organisation is applied when the community takes initiative in solving
their problems and meetings their needs. In such a situation the community plays
different roles in dealing with the various needs and problems.
Scope and Importance of Community Organization
Community organisation is a recent and developing branch of modern social
work. Therefore, its scope is not yet determined. However, the community
organisation has its scope in economic upliftment, education, health, road and
housing, recreation and cultural development, social services and community life.
The importances of community organisation are as follows:
 It promotes sense of participation among the people.
 It brings about individual progress towards material and recreational goals.
 It helps in personal acceptance and appreciations of each other.
 It creates an atmosphere of respect for the rights and interest of people.
Activities under Community Organization
 Organising Activities
 Leadership and Promotional activities
 budgeting Activities
  Administrative Activities
 Public Relation Activities
 Research Activities
 Development of community consciousness
Displaced Population and Rehabilitation:
Political turbulence in many regions of the world has increased the number of
displaced people fleeing complex emergencies and disasters. Displaced people
include internally displaced people (people who remain in their own countries) as
well as refugees (people who cross international borders).
Six Organizations Supporting Refugees and Affected Communities
 UNHCR
Established by the UN General Assembly in 1950, UNHCR leads and
coordinates international action to protect refugees and resolve refugee problems
worldwide.
 Mercy Corps
Mercy Corps provides direct aid to Syrian refugees in the form of food and
supplies, and by increasing access to clean water and sanitation, shelters, and
safe spaces and activities for children.
 Save the Children
This organization provides emergency food for Syrian children and supports
education in Syrian refugee camps.
 UNICEF
The UN agency focuses on assisting Syrian children by providing healthcare,
nutrition, immunization, water and sanitation, and classes.
 Catholic Relief Services
This faith-based organization provides comprehensive services—including
shelter, education, food, supplies, and medical assistance—to support Syrians
and communities affected by the influx of refugees, particularly in Jordan,
Lebanon, Egypt, Turkey, and Iraq.
 Shelter Box
Shelter Box provides emergency shelter and vital supplies to support
communities around the world overwhelmed by disaster and humanitarian crisis.
Rehabilitation:
Meaning:
 The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights has declared that
right to housing is a basic human right. In India, most of the displacements have
resulted due to land acquisition by the government for various reasons.
The major issues related to displacement and rehabilitation is:
(a) Tribal are usually the most affected amongst the displaced that are already poor.
Displacement further increases their poverty due to loss of land, home, jobs, food
insecurity, loss of access to common property assets, increased morbidity and
mortality and social isolation.
(b) Break up of families in an important social issue arising due to displacement in
which the women are the worst affected and they are not even given cash/land
compensation.
(c) The tribal are not familiar with the market policies and trends. Even if they get
cash compensation, they get isolated in the modern economic set up.
(e) Kinship systems, marriages, social and cultural functions, their folk-songs,
dances and activities vanish with their displacement, even when they are resettled; it
is individual-based resettlement, which totally ignores communal settlement.
(f) Loss of identify of individuals and the loss of connection between the people the
environment is the greatest loss in the process. The indigenous knowledge that they
have regarding the wildlife and the herbal plants are lost.
Community Disaster Response:
Disaster response at community level has its own components and
interactions. Response components at community level are the main elements
whose activity is because of their responsibility or their interest. Responsibility
refers to local governmental organizations that are responsible for rescue, relief and
fire fighting. The other sides that activate due to their interest are local community
organizations and residents that try to save their lives and property.
Local government response to disaster is considered to be a function of two matters:
 Defined responsibility based on disaster prevention law;
 Previous earthquakes experience.
Community-based organizations (CBO) members are combinations of
residents and local government authorities. These organizations have the role of
being medium between authorities and residents.

MODULE 5
 SOCIAL ACTION
SOCIAL ACTION-CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES, PRINCIPLES

Concepts of Social Action

As a method of professional social work, social action has remained an issue
with wide ranging of opinions regarding its scope, strategies and tactics to be used,
its status as a method and its relevance to social work practice.
 Mary Richmond was the first social worker to use the word ‘social action’ in
1922. She defines social action as “mass betterment through propaganda and
social legislation”.
 Lee (1937) who says “social action seems to suggest efforts directed towards
changes in law or social structure or towards the initiation of new movements
for the modification of the current social practices”.
 According to Coyle (1937) social action is the attempt to change the social
environment in ways, which will make life more satisfactory. It aims to affect
not individuals but social institutions, laws, customs, communities.
 Fitch (1940) considers social action as legally permissible action by a group
(or by an individual trying to promote group action) for the purpose of
furthering objectives that are both legal and socially desirable.

 Hill (1951) describes social action as “organised group effort to solve mass
social problems or to further socially desirable objectives by attempting to
influence basic social and economic conditions or practices”.
 Solander (1957) states that social action in the field of social work is a
process of individual, group or inter-group endeavour, within the context of
social work philosophy, knowledge and skill. Its objective is to enhance the
welfare of society through modifying social policy and the functioning of
social structure, working to obtain greater progress and better services. It is,
therefore, evident that social action has been viewed as a method of bringing
about structural changes along with social legislation.
 Moorthy (1966) states that the scope of social action includes work during
catastrophic situations such as fires, floods, epidemics, famines, etc., besides
securing social legislation.
Objectives of Social Action
The objective of social action is the proper shaping and development of
socio-cultural environment in which a richer and fuller life may be possible for all
the citizens. Mishra (1992) has identified following objectives of social action:
1) Prevention of needs
2) Solution of mass problems
3) Improvement in mass conditions
4) Influencing institutions, policies and practices
5) Introduction of new mechanisms or programmes
6) Redistribution of power and resources (human, material and moral)
7) Decision-making
8) Effect on thought and action structure
9) Improvement in health, education and welfare
Principles of Social Action
1. Activeness of group or community:
For the success of social action, the group or community concerned should be
active and conscious. Besides the group or community activeness should who
planned and organised.

2. Democratic working:
The mode or method adopted in the process of social action should be based
on democratic ideals. It is because the theory and practice of social work
depend on the democratic values.
3. Democratic leadership:
The leadership emerged during the process of social action should be of
democratic character. Leadership is not to be imposed but it should emerge
through common consent.
4. Arrangement of resources:
Before proceeding towards the process of social action, proper consideration
should be given to the material and non-material resources of the community
concerned. Without sufficient resources, the aim of social action could not be
achieved.
5. Co-ordination between problem and resources:
In social action, problem should be selected only after evaluating the
available resources. For it the social worker should be the pertinent literature
which deals with problem.
6. Co-operation:
Social action can be successful only when co-operation of the community
members is available. For this purpose, social worker should inspire the
 members of participation in social action process. The social workers should
also provide direction and guidance to the community members so that the
problems arising from time to time can be solved.
7. Public opinion:
The success and failure of social action is ultimately based on public opinion
therefore newspapers, radio, television and public meetings should be utilised
for the emergence of healthy public opinion
SOCIAL ACTION: METHODS AND STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL ACTION

Strategies of social action

 Lee has identified three types of strategies for social action:

1. Collaboration:

In this strategy, the social workers collaborate with the local authority
and other authorities or agencies in order to bring about improvements in the
existing social policy. The basic assumption of this approach is homogeneity of
values and interests, through which substantive agreement on proposals in
obtainable. No one stands to lose a great deal of power, authority or money, since
change occurs within a consensus that includes both values and interests.
2. Competition
In this strategy contending parties utilize commonly accepted campaign
tactics to persuade, to negotiate and to bargain, with a willingness to arrive at a
working agreement.
3. Disruption
This strategy signifies more militant approach and it may include strikes,
boycotts, fasts, tax- refusal sit-ins etc. Richard Bryant postulates two sets of
strategies- bargaining and confrontation. Bargaining means lobbying, submitting
petitions, information and publicity campaigns,etc. whereas confrontation includes
strikes, demonstrations and ‘sitins’.
Hornstein has mentioned the following strategies for social intervention:
individual change, techno-structural data based organizational development and
cultural change, violence and coercion and non- violent action. Accommodation,
exposures, living examples, public support, presentation of proposals, competition,
lobbying, agitation and subversion etc. sharp has identified as many as 198 methods
of non- violent action. Hornstein has classified them as under:
o Direct action tactics: picketing, marches, fraternization, haunting,
leafleting and renouncing honours.
 o Non- cooperation : strike, boycott, tax refusal
o Intervention: sit –in, fast, reverse strike, obstruction.
Methods of social action
Social action as a method of social work
 Social work has six methods of working with people (casework, group work,
community organization, social action, social welfare administration and
social work research).
 Social action, as a method of professional social work practice, is an
organized effort to change or improve social and economic institutions
through organization and mobilization of the community people.
 Social action covers movements of social, religious and political reform,
social legislation, racial and social justice, human rights, freedom and civic
liberty.
 Social action process, more or less, passes through the recognizable and
systematic stages. First of all, a scientific analysis or research on the social
problem affecting the community people is carried out. Then, awareness is
generated regarding various aspects of the problem and people are
encouraged to take collective and collaborative action to solve the problem.
Third stage is centered on organizing people for coordinated and directed
intervention whereas in further stage suitable strategies are developed to
achieve the goals and lastly, action is taken.
Methods of social action
 Social casework is a method of social work to help individuals to cope more
effectively with their social problems.
 The psychosocial problems of the client are deal mainly in one to-one
relationship between the client and the caseworker.
 The relation of social action with casework can be understood with the fact
that individuals and society are interdependent.
 The client may be having the same social problem, which the social worker is
addressing, at the macro level through social action.
 In such a situation, caseworker needs to build confidence and faith among
the client and prepare him/her to be a part of social action process.
Social action in relation to group work
  The importance of social group work can be understood with the fact that a
man is considered a group animal.
 Group experiences are the essential needs of human beings.
 Social group work acts as a building block in the process of social action.
Group members learn organization, cooperation and coordination. They learn
interdependence and democratic values.
 In the group work process, while participating in the activities of the group,
the group members learn to live and work together to attain some specific
goals.
 Social group work solves adjustment problems and enhances positive
interpersonal relations.
 It prepares the individuals to learn and share responsibility in working
together.
 Social group work also explores leadership qualities among its members.
 social group work also helps the social worker to refine his/her skills of
dealing with different personalities to work for common goals. The social
worker resolves various intra-group conflicts and personality clashes. These
skills and experiences become handy while dealing with conflicting
situations between different groups during the process of social action.
Social action in relation to community organization
 Social action shares many similarities with community organization.
Sometimes there is a debate whether social action is a part of community
organization or is completely a different entity. Some believe that it is a part
of community organization.
 Community organization is a process of effective coordination of different
agencies within a particular area and involves cooperative planning and
implementation of social policy relating to the area.
 However, social action as a process is used for tackling issues, which are of a
much wider nature than issues affecting a particular area.
 In both the processes, that is, community organization and social action, need
or problem identification is the first step.
 social action is community organization with the aim of bringing about or
preventing long lasting social change where confrontation with the existing
authority is involved.
  The strategies and tactics involved in social action like, propaganda,
picketing, strike, boycott, sit-in, fast, etc. make social action different from
community organization.
Social action in relation to social welfare administration
 It is the process by which we apply professional approach to certain goals
and transform social policy into social action.
 It is a process of planning, implementing, directing, monitoring, organizing,
coordinating and evaluation of services rendered for the welfare and
development of the people.
 Social welfare administration is mainly concerned with providing social
welfare services like activities related to child care, women’s development,
etc., in an organizational set-up and thus translating the social mandates into
operational policies.
 The organization delivering these social services does have a definite set of
goals, staffing pattern and adequate administrative and managerial skills.

Social action in relation to social work research

 Social work research is the systematic and scientific study of social problems,
and its objective is to produce knowledge that can be used in planning and
carrying out social work programmes and (if the need arises) social action.
 It helps in ‘knowing’ the social problem, its intensity and extensiveness, its
causal factors, its impact on the target population and its repercussions on
social life of the people.
 It also gives the understanding of the factual ground realities (and not mere
perceptions) of the social situations, which in turn helps in conceptualizing
the pros and cons of various possible social interventions.
 So, a systematic study of a social problem, and looking for remedies through
social work intervention, is a must for the attainment of goals through social
action.
SCOPE OF SOCIAL ACTION IN INDIA, SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Social Action
 Social action is an individual group or community effort which aims to bring
changes in social legislation and welfare services. (Walter Friedlander)

Social action touches the very core of society and shapes its destiny. It is a
process of change to be brought about by deliberate group and community effort is
not unknown to the profession of social work.

Scope of Social Action

Scope of social action depends on how its aims are formulated. Its aim is
dependent on the aim of social work profession. If social work profession is
concerned with providing wholesome, rich and abundant life for everyone, then it
is logical for social workers to try to probe beyond end results, to uncover causes
and to seek prevention rather than that of merely cure or treatment. It also
depends on how the causative factors for human problems are understood. Also if
the aim of social action is modification of earlier legislation, bringing in new
legislation or the bringing about a revolution, then the social action centers on
these activities.

However if the liberal tradition informs the democratic systems, and

there is focus on generating more economic growth and develop more social
services to meet those problems – then social action will focus on the
inadequacy of social services, social legislation and other similar issues. But if
there are questions regarding whether growth is justified at the cost of equality,
or whether it is required at all, and whether there are alternatives available to
the development model proposed, then the scope of social action is linked to
these questions and seeking solutions for these. Then it also goes beyond
existing legal norms as the concept of legality in itself is a relative concept.
The desirability of elitist and western led social goals and other questions
related to who decides that these goals as desirable, legal and required by
people and by what
means become the focus of social action.

Social Movement

Since the late 1960s, especially in the wake of the proliferation of new
forms of collective protest, resistance and mobilization, like the students,
environmental, Black civil rights, women’s, etc., movements in the United
States and Western Europe, efforts have been made to identify new elements
in social movements.

It has been widely recognized that social movements help to generate

a sense of collective identity and new ideas that recognize the reality itself.
And redefine modes of collective existence and Melucci has emphasized on
collective identity formation. To him, social movements grow around
relationships of new social identity that are voluntarily conceived “to
empower” members in defense of this identity. Eyerman and Jamison highlight
that:

By articulating consciousness, the social movement provides public

spaces for generating new thoughts, activating new actors, generating new
ideas. Thus by producing new knowledge, by reflecting on their own cognitive
identity, by saying what they stand for, by challenging the dominant
assumptions of the social order, social movements develop new ideas that are
fundamental to the process of human creativity. Thus social movements
develop worldviews that restructure cognition, that recognise reality itself. The
cognitive praxis of social movements is an important source of new social
images and transformation of societal identities.

Social movements are framed based on a collective identity of various

groups, namely, women, environmentalists, students, peasants, workers, etc.,
who are organized on the basis of common identity and interests. To Allan
Scott, in a social movement the actor’s collective identity is linked to his or her
understanding of their social situation. To him “a social movement is a
collective actor constituted by individuals who understand themselves to have
a common interest, and at least some significant part of their social existence, a
common identity”.

However, participation in social movements may not always be for the

quest of an identity; rather, it may be for the gratification of political and
material interests. Tilly, McAdam, Tarrow and many others are of the view
that social movements manifest in response to the increase in the potential
political opportunities and growing receptivity of the state to the activities of
the challenging groups.

In general, these scholars emphasize the various resources involved in

the manifestation and operationalisation of social movements. This approach,
known as resource mobilization, assumes that collective actions are related to
the specific opportunity structures. Here importance is given on the rationality
of human action, whereby the participants in the social movement calculate the
costs and benefits of their participatory action in collective mobilization.

APPROACHES TO SOCIAL ACTION- FREIRE, GANDI, ALINSKY,RADICAL

SOCIAL WORK; RIGHT BASED APPORACH

Social Action has developed its theoretical position by drawing on a

number of approaches. Initially Social Action was influenced strongly by the
ideas of Paulo Freire (1970) the Brazilian liberationist educator. It was also
influenced by the writings of Marx and Engels and community organizers and
activists like Saul Alinsky (1971). In the 1980s and 1990s as it developed,
Social Action drew heavily on the thinking and writings of the disability
movement and the feminist movement/research (for example see: Annie
Oakley). Debates in youth work (Bernard Davies, Paul Willis) on participation
and empowerment (Mark Smith, creators not consumers 1980) and children’s
rights (Hart, 1995; Shier, 2001 ) have also influenced our work.

The following sections discuss the ideas of these thinkers in more detail.

Paolo Freire

Paolo Freire was a Brazilian educator who linked literacy with

development and social change. For Freire, education is political – it is either
domesticating or liberating. Traditional education is based on a banking model
where the teacher (expert) makes deposits of knowledge, which the student
(object) banks to be regurgitated in exams. In traditional (domesticating)
education he describes the student as an empty vessel into which the teacher
pours knowledge. For Freireeducation is the practice of liberation both for the
student and the teacher

Conscientization Approach

Meaning

Conscientization is a process, which enable people to analyze their own

situation and to understand their alienation. They must discover their
individual and cooperation power and act towards the creation of their own
future. Conscientization implies not mere subjective perception or awareness
 of situation but also action that prepares man for struggle against the obstacles
to their humanization.

Paul freire developed the method of conscientization to compact the

problem of illiteracy. He used education as a tool for development, freedom
and organization.

A key concept in Freire`s approach is conscientization, meaning the

ways in which individuals and communities develop a critical understanding
of their social reality through reflection and action. This involves
examining and acting on the root causes of oppression as experienced in the
here and now. This goes beyond simply acquiring the technical skills of
reading and writing. It is a cornerstone to ending the culture of silence, in
which oppression is not mentioned and thereby maintained.
In what he referred to as the `archaeology of consciousness`, Freire identified
three different levels of political awareness: magical consciousness, naïve
consciousness and critical consciousness. It was the role of the educator to
foster a process of dialogue and liberation that would enable citizens to reach
critical consciousness. It is here that we see a clear link between Freire`s work
and the concept so central to social work: empowerment.

Gandhi (Sarvodaya)

21st century is the era of globalization. New economic policy of

globalization moves on to make the world a global village. New challenges and
problems have emerged before youth. The belief that all emergent problems -
ecological, social, economical, political and moral-could be resolved by discoveries
and technological innovations persists, filatures in the past notwithstanding. What is
happening today is in line with what Gandhi almost predicted in Hind Swaraj as he
prepared its manuscript in 1908.Gandhi put forward four main goals before youth
for humanity, so as to move towards its destiny. These are Swaraj, Non-violence,
Swadeshi and Sarvodaya. These are the main pillars of the thesis he has propounded
in the Hind Swaraj. In this paper an attempt is made to focus on Sarvodaya as one
of the pillars to bring Hind Swaraj. Objectives of this research paper are to know
Gandhian philosophy of Sarvodaya for changing attitude of youth & aware youth
for their rights & duties. Primary & secondary resources are used for this paper.

Meaning of Sarvodaya:

Sarvodaya is a term meaning 'Universal Uplift' or 'Progress of All'. The term

was first coined by Mohandas Gandhi as the title of his 1908 translation of John
Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last", and Gandhi came to use the
term for the ideal of his own political philosophy. Later Gandhian, like the Indian
nonviolence activist VinobaBhave, embraced the term as a name for the social
movement in post-independence India which strove to ensure that self-
determination and equality reached all strata of India society.
Sarvodaya Movement:
Gandhi's ideals have lasted well beyond the achievement of one of his chief
projects, Indian independence (Swaraj). His followers in India (notably,
VinobaBhave) continued working to promote the kind of society that he envisioned,
and their efforts have come to be known as the Sarvodaya Movement. Anima Bose
has referred to the movement's philosophy as "a fuller and richer concept of
people's democracy than any we have yet known." Sarvodaya workers associated
with Vinoba, J. P. Narayan, Dada Dharmadhikari, DhirendraMazumdaar,
ShankarraoDeo, and K. G. Mashruwala undertook various projects aimed at
encouraging popular self-organization during the 1950s and 1960s, including
Bhoodan and Gramdan movements. Many groups descended from these networks
continue to function locally in India today.5

Agency of Common Welfare:

That Sarvodaya is an agency of Service for Common Welfare Sarvodaya sets

its face squarely against the politics of power and exploitation. It lays great
emphasis on moral and spiritual values. It seeks to create new social and
economical values. The concept of possession yields place to the concept of
trusteeship. People will work for the good of all and family feeling will animate the
entire community. There will be fullest scope for freedom, fellowship and equality.
The state is to be an agency of power. Gramrajya is a base of non-violence.
Sarvodaya stands for good of all and not for the good of any particular individual or
class. Bhoodan at the early stage, Gramdan at a later stage and Sampattidan will
bring about a change of heart. The rich and poor will give up their ideas of
attachment to private property and will strive to work for the good of all.
Objects of Sarvodaya Movement:
The Sarvodaya Movement has as its target the establishment of a whole
network of such self-supporting village communities. The family relationships
which are confined at present to the blood group will be extended to cover the
whole village where distinctions based on race, creed, caste, language and so forth
will completely be eliminated. Agriculture will be so planned that all the people
will have enough to consume. Industry will be conducted on a cottage basis till all
the people in the village are gainfully employed. The needs of the village will be
determined by the people of the village themselves, through Village Council,
representative of the whole village.
Principles of the Sarvodaya:

 There is no centralized authority, and there is political and economic

atmosphere in the villages.
 Politics will not be the instrument of power but an agency of service
and Rajnity will yield place to Loknity.
 All people will be imbued with the spirit of love, fraternity, truth, non-
violence and self-sacrifices. Society will function on the basis on the non-
violence.
 There will be no party system and majority rule and society will be free from
the evil of the tyranny of the majority.
 The sarvodaya society is socialist in the true sense of the term. All calling
will be the same moral, social and economical values. The individual
personality has the fullest scope for development.
 The sarvodaya society is based on equality and liberty. There is no room in it
for unwholesome some competition, exploitation and class-hatred.
 Sarvodaya stands for the progress of the all. All individual should do
individual labour and follow the ideal of non possession. Then it will be
possible to realize the goal of: from each according to his work and to each
according to his needs.
 There will be no private property, the instrument of exploitation and the
source of social distinctions and hatred. Similarly, the profit motive will
disappear, rent and interest to will go.
 The Sarvodaya Movement is based on Truth, Non-violence and Self-denial.
 The Sarvodaya Movement makes a sincere and bold attempt to create the
necessary atmosphere to bring together such individuals with an unwavering
faith in the Welfare of All
 The gain to the individual would be small. The development of each quality
depends upon every other. If all the qualities are improved a little, then the
individual would gain more.

Alinsky

Saul Alinsky, community activist and writer in the USA in the

1950s/60s, wrote Rules for Radicals, which influenced our early ideas about
the relationship between individual action and social change. He focused on
community organizing and was involved with key social issues of the period,
activating communities to challenge injustice.
 “It is a grave situation when a people resign their citizenship or when a
resident of a great city, though he may desire to take a hand, lacks the means
to participate. That citizen sinks further into apathy, anonymity, and de-
personalization. The result is that he comes to depend on public authority and
a state of civic-sclerosis sets in” (Alinsky. Prologue to Rules for Radicals
1971).Alinsky’s work connected with Social Action because his philosophy is
“anchored in optimism. It must be, for optimism brings with it hope for a
future with a purpose - and therefore a will to fight for a better world. Without
optimism there is no reason to carry on.”

Alinsky also had clear ideas on the role of the community organizer and
how you must look and behave to engage in effective community organizing
“with people who do not participate in the endless responsibilities of
citizenship and are resigned to live lives determined by others”. Because “to
lose your identity as a citizen of democracy is but a step from losing your
identity as a person. People react to this frustration by not acting at all”.
RE;generate go on to summarise what they see as the core of Alinsky’s
approach, drawn from Rules for Radicals:

 As a community organizer, start from where the world is and not as you
would like it to be.

 People are ready to work to change situations and to tackle problems that
most affect and frustrate them. Organize people around issues and
problems that are important to them.

 People start to change from where they are and from the reality they know
best. Change starts in the minds and hearts of the people.

Alinsky’s ideas are close to those of Freire’s illustrated here:

“People only understand things in terms of their experience, which means you
must get within their experience. Further, communication is a two-way process.
If you try to get your ideas across to others without paying attention to what they
have to say to you, you can forget about the whole thing” (Ledwith, 2005)

Schemes of Saul Alinsky

 Community problem- political issues – alternatives of action- community
confrontation with cause of injustice- if victorious move on to the next problem.

PROCESS

1. Alinsky believes in not going to any community unless invited by the

leaders of the community.

2. After entering the community the next step taken is to;

 Plot the power pattern in the community.

 Search out and evaluate the local leaders.

 Gather statistics and other data on the community.

 Discover the grievance of the residents.

 Bring people together so that they can articulate their frustration and
problem.

 Solicit suggestions on solution and methods of achieving solution.

Right Based Approach

Too often, emergency response is limited to addressing practical, short-

term emergency needs, through service delivery. Without minimizing the
value of these services or their importance, they do not always fit within a
framework that protects and promotes the rights of beneficiaries, like a rights-
based approach would do. A rights-based approach is particularly important
when working on VAWG, which cannot be addressed without working on
basic gender equality rights and its root causes.

As demonstrated in the table below, a rights-based approach invests

beneficiaries as ‘rights-holders’, creates an avenue for their voices to be
heard, and enables them to play an active role in rebuilding and development-
as opposed to providing support or services on an assumed needs basis and
having no say in what action is taken.
NEEDS-BASED APPROACH RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH
Works toward outcome goals Works toward outcome and process
goals
Emphasizes meeting needs Emphasizes realizing rights
Recognizes needs as valid claims Recognizes that rights always imply
obligations of the State
Meets needs without empowerment Recognizes that rights can only be
realized with empowerment
Accepts charity as the driving States that charity is insufficient
motivation for meeting needs motivation for meeting needs
Focuses on manifestations of problems Focuses on manifestations of problems
and immediate causes of problems and immediate causes of problems
Involves narrow sectoral projects Involves intersectoral, holistic projects
and programmes
Focuses on social context with little Focuses on social, economic, cultural,
emphasis on policy civil and political context, and is
policy-oriented

A rights-based approach:

 Integrates international human rights and humanitarian law norms,

standards and principles into plans, policies, services and
processes of humanitarian intervention and development related to
violence against women.
 Is multi-sectoral and comprehensive.
 Involves many actors and stakeholders (state and non-state).
 Must be addressed within the context of the prevailing political,
legal, social and cultural norms and values in a country or
community.

A rights-based approach also seeks to empower women and girls.

‘Empowerment’ implies that women are powerful in the face of adversity and
approaches must build on that. Empowerment programming involves building
the tools and resources necessary on an individual and community level to
strengthen women and girls’ ability to make life choices that affect their social
and physical well-being. These choices include decisions regarding their
sexual health, livelihoods, continuing education and the use and control of
social and economic resources. This requires programmes to work with men
and entire communities to create an environment where women and girls are
supported to make these decisions safely. It also means building the capacity
of communities to identify and change the structural environment that enables
violence against women and girls to continue. It requires long-term
engagement from the outset of an emergency through until peace and
development have truly come to women and girls. Examples of empowerment
programming include: ensuring access to information in the earliest days of
the emergency, supporting women’s choice in using the family planning
method they want to use, working with men in Village Savings Loan
Associations to allow women to have more voice in the home and reduce
violence, and creating a larger environment where women can move around
safely (Source: IRC FAQs, 2011).

Applying a rights-based approach to VAWG responses in conflict/post-

conflict settings can strengthen the accountability of all humanitarian actors
including the UN and governments by promoting participation and inclusion;
in turn, this can reinforce a culturally sensitive and non-discriminatory
response to emergencies. By understanding the social factors that influence
decision-making during conflicts, and actively recognizing and analyzing
changing roles and vulnerabilities of women and men, a rights-based approach
can mitigate the short-term and long-term negative effects of a crisis situation
(UNFPA and Harvard School of Public Health, 2010).

 Mechanisms for assisting ‘rights holders’ to claim rights include:

 Sensitization/awareness of rights holders and duty bearers

 Advocacy to duty bearers
 Participation and empowerment of rights holders
 Ensuring national legislation and legislative oversight mechanisms
 Reporting obligations to UN monitoring mechanisms (narrative
reports/data)
 Civil society “shadow reporting” (for example, on CEDAW)
(excerpted from UNFPA, Curriculum Guide GBV Coordination
Course, p 81)

STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL ACTION FROM VARIOUS MOVEMENTS

• The dictionary meaning of strategy is plan/ policy/ approach/ stratagem.

• ‘Strategy’ is a larger term equivalent to form or model of social action

• Social action involves collaboration, motivation, negotiation, mediation,

persuasion, confrontation and conflict resolution in its process and, in order
to show its dissent against the authority, may adhere to sit-ins,

Hunger strike, protest march, boycott, slogan display, and other such
strategies and tactics. Strategies and tactics form the core of social action practice.
 1) Collaboration: In this, the underlying assumption is that to bring about
change in power equation, resorting to conflictive strategies are not always
necessary. The authority may be responsive and bring out necessary changes
to provide equitable resource sharing to the marginalized groups too. In this,
social workers collaborate with the local authority and other authorities or
agencies with the aim to bring about needed improvements in the existing
social policy. This strategy is based on homogeneity of values and interests,
through which substantive agreement on proposed interventions is
obtainable. In collaborative strategy, the changein the social structure or
institution is brought through peaceful means. Such means are education,
persuasion, demonstration, and experimentation.
2) Competition or bargaining, negotiation, advocacy: The second set of
strategies are based on the premise that one anticipates some resistance to
change, and the activity of the change agent may have to be accompanied by
tactics which are not exclusively persuasive but rather seek to affect change
through pressure. In this strategy, contending parties utilize commonly
accepted campaign tactics to persuade, to negotiate and to bargain, with the
willingness to arrive at a working agreement.
3) Disruption or conflict/confrontation: Third set of techniques are based on
the premise that in the struggle between those who are pro status quo and
those who are pro change, resistance is an aspect of the change effort and
therefore the dynamic of conflict is inherent in the social action effort. This
strategy signifies a more militant approach and it may include strikes,
boycotts, fasts, tax-refusal, ‘sit-ins’ etc. Lees also includes riots and guerilla
warfare though these may be omitted by many other social workers as any
use of violence will be unacceptable to values and ethics of professional
social work.
Some of the movements which the strategies of social action implemented in
India:

 CHIPKO MOVEMENT
 NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN
 NIRBHAYA MOVEMENT, 2012

1. CHIPKO MOVEMENT
In 1964 environmentalist and Gandhian social activist Chandi Prasad Bhatt
founded a cooperative organization, Dasholi Gram SwarajyaMandal (DGSM), to
foster small industries for rural villagers, using local resources. When industrial
logging was linked to the severe monsoon floods that killed more than 200 people
in the region in 1970, DGSM became a force of opposition against the large-scale
industry. The first Chipko protest occurred near the village of Mandal in the upper
Alaknanda valley in April 1973. The villagers, having been denied access to a small
number of trees with which to build agricultural tools, were outraged when the
government allotted a much larger plot to a sporting goods manufacturer.

When their appeals were denied, Chandi Prasad Bhatt led villagers into the
forest and embraced the trees to prevent logging. After many days of those protests,
the government canceled the company’s logging permit and granted the original
allotment requested by DGSM. They began to share Chipko’s tactics with people in
other villages throughout the region.

2. NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN

Narmada Bachao Andolan is the most powerful mass movement, started in

1985, against the construction of a huge dam on the Narmada River. As per the
Narmada Dam Project, the plan was to build over 3000 big and small dams along
the river. In 1987, construction began on the Sardar Sarovar Dam and the people
who were going to be affected by the construction of the dam were given no
information but the offer for rehabilitation. The leading spokesperson of Narmada
Bachao Andolan was Medha Patkar and Baba Amte.

In May 1990, Narmada BachaoAndolan organized a 2,000-person, five-day

sit-in at PM V. P. Singh’s residence in New Delhi, which convinced the Prime
Minister to ‘reconsider’ the project. In December 1990, approximately 6000 men
and women began the Narmada Jan Vikas Sangharsh Yatra (Narmada People’s
Progress Struggle March), marching over 100 kilometers. In January 1991, Baba
Amte and the seven-member team began an indefinite hunger strike (continued for
22 days) and committed to a sit-in unto death.

The mode of the campaign under NBA includes court actions, hunger strikes,
rallies, and gathering support from notable film and art personalities. Narmada
BachaoAndolan was also joined by several NGOs with local people, professionals,
and activists as the founders with a non-violent approach. There were many groups
supporting NBA such as Gujarat-based Narmada AsargrasthaSamiti, Madhya
Pradesh-based Narmada GhatiNavNirmanSamiti (Committee for a New Life in the
Narmada Valley) and Maharashtra-Based Narmada DharangrasthaSamiti
(Committee for Narmada Dam-Affected People). NBA’s slogans include –
“Development wanted, not destruction” and “we won’t move, the dam won’t be
constructed”.

3. NIRBHAYA MOVEMENT, 2012

One of the angry reactions from people who expressed very clearly that they
have had enough was the Delhi Gang Rape 2012. After the incident, thousands of
people protested around the country on the streets. The campaign has also generated
a backlash in social media; where people have converted their opinion into a black
dot and tens of thousands have signed a petition of condemn the incident. The
central government and many states announced various measures to ensure the
protection of women, taking account of the campaign.
SKILLS –MEDIATAION, ADVOCACY, CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Mediation
Mediation is a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR), a way of resolving
disputes between two or more parties with concrete effects. A third party, the
mediator , assists the parties to negotiate a settlement.Disputes in a variety of
domains, such as commercial, legal, diplomatic, workplace, community and family,
matters.
Advantages of Mediation
 Mediation gives the parties ultimate control over the parties’ ultimate control
over the outcome of their dispute, which in turn lets them decide their own
futures.
 Medication costs significantly less than litigation.
 Through the use of a skilled third party neural, the mediator, the parties have
the opportunity to fully explain their positions and explore alternatives for
mutual benefits.

Benefits of mediation
 Mediation often improves understanding between the parties in an ongoing
relationship.
 Informality.
 Privacy and confidentiality.
 Control.

Advocacy
 Advocacy is taking action to help people say what they want, secure their
rights, represent their interests and obtain the services they need. The primary goals
of advocacy are achieving social justice and people empowerment. Role of
advocacy from a social context includes the redistribution of power and recourse to
an individual or group, guarding their rights and preserving their values, conserving
their best interests and overcoming the sense of powerlessness.

Conflict Resolution
Conflict resolution is the process by which two or more parties engaged in a
disagreement, Dispute or debate reach an agreement resolving It. Conflict
resolution, otherwise known as reconciliation, is conceptualized as the methods and
process involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict resolution.

Types of conflict
 Functional: Support the goal of the group and improves its performance.

i. Task Conflict: Related to content and goals of the work.

ii. Relationship Conflict: Focuses on interpersonal relationships.

iii. Process Conflict: Process conflict relates to how the work gets done.

 Dysfunctional: Conflict that hinders group performance.

Conflict Resolution in Groups

 Resolving intra-group conflicts: Conflict with in a family can be resolved if
the members recognize and respect roles of family members. All the
members need to realise that dived they stand, united they fall. Probably a
family friend may intervene to the dispute if the members fail to resolve the
conflict themselves.
SOCIAL ACTION AS A METHOD OF SOCIAL WORK

Definition of Social Action

 According to Walter Friedlander, “Social action is an individual, group or

community effort which aims to bring changes in social legislation and
welfare services”.
 Prof. Kenneth Pray has explained social action in terms of systematic efforts.
These efforts influence to those basic conditions and policies which creates
 the various problems of social adjustment. Thus, social action is an
organized effort which aims to solve the social problems.
 According to Sanford Solender, “Social action in the field of social work is a
process of individual group endeavour, within the context of social work
philosophy, knowledge and skill. Its objective is to enhance to welfare of
society through modifying social policy and functioning of structure, working
to obtain new progress and services.”
Social Action as a Method of Social Work
Social action n is a comparatively new addition to the list of methods of
professional social work. Social action has been used in other fields as well, such
as the field of social reform and of political movements, transfer of power. It
concerns are with two important social ideas and institutions of our times, namely,
welfare and development which constitute two specific denominations of social
work practice. A word before that about the meaning of the two concepts. By
welfare we refer to the entire package of services social and economic, that deal
with income and support, welfare provisions and social security on the one hand
and with the whole range of social services on the other.
Social action has a definite set of goals and objectives. The goal of social
action is redistribution with regard to resources and power to provide social justice
to all. Its objective is the proper shaping and development of socio-cultural
environment in which a richer and fuller life may be possible for all the citizens.
Social action is a method of social work, which is, used for/with/by any unit of
society larger than sociologically defined community. It is an organised effort to
change or improve social and economic institutions, as distinguished from other
methods of social work, which do not characteristically cover essential changes in
established institutions through confrontation with the authorities.
All the helping activities approaches, social services, and institutional
innovations that are found in the developing nations today have been introduced
through the method of development. Whereas development has thus been the main
level of change in the new nations, Welfare, a built in mechanism of the developed
world is also concerned with social change, through it expresses such concern
merely by reviewing and reorganizing the structure f the welfare institution.
Examples of social action:
 Examples of social action can include raising awareness of environmental
issues such as climate change, writing to your local MP about a change that is
required in your community or visiting older people in care homes.
Use of Social Action in Social Work Factors

In social work, social is an important aspect to study. Action is a subject of

study so long as it forms the part of an individual or group problem. But along with
this aspects, social action is an organized group process which is used to solve the
social problems under this process. Public opinion is motivated towards attaining
the aims of social work.
The social action as an auxiliary method of social work is oriented towards
the expansion of democratic values. Its use in social work factors may be evaluated
as follows:
1. Removal of Social Action
The principal aim of social action is to solve the social problems. From this
point of view, there is large scope for social action in India n society which is
confronted by many social problems, viz. casteism, untouchability prohibition of
widow re-marriage, prevalence of women and child labour, etc. These problems
should be solved in accordance to democratic ideals.
2. Solution of Individual and Family Problems
The problems with regard to individual and family needs top priority. In this
direction efforts are being made at the government and private level. These
problems can be solved with the help of social action.
3. Spread of Democratic Values
Social work is based on the democratic ideals. Justice, equality and liberty
are its main pillars. In practice, these ideals should be available to every citizen.
Therefore, in order to accomplish these democratic ideals rapid changes in the
present social structure are inevitable. For this purpose, social action can be
used as a base.
4. Encouragement to Organizational Function
Social Action is a process having various forms and as well as various modes
of execution. Further, social process could be integrative or disintensive.
Therefore, with the help of integrative social process the speed of social action
can be increased.
5. Social Reform
 With the help of social action, we can encourage the process of social reform.
It indirectly beings improvement in social conditions. There are many
pathologies which emerge due to general economic condition, can be solved
with the help of social action.
Role of Social Worker in Social Action

Clarke has assigned the following roles to a social worker to bring about
desirable changes through social action:

1. Social work practitioners have the responsibility of keeping their constituency

informed of conditions, creating the awareness about problems they handled so
that the agency which is composed of supporters, staff and clients can share
thoughts and opinions in achieving social change.
2. Social work professional as a citizen has a constitutional right to participate in
any form of legal social action.
3. In a democratic society like ours, all reforms are eventually bound up with
political action and hence if we are eventually bound up with political action
and hence if we are to be realistic about social change we cannot evade
association with political action groups.
4. Support specific programmes because they believe in them, not because they
have professional expertise of them.
5. Social work professional may participate at any level –be it primary secondary.