Solar PV System

Solar Cells Background

• 1839 - French physicist A. E. Becquerel first recognized

the photovoltaic effect.

• Photo+voltaic = convert light to electricity

• 1883 - first solar cell built, by Charles Fritts, coated semiconductor

selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form the junctions.

• 1954 - Bell Laboratories, experimenting with semiconductors,

accidentally found that silicon doped with certain impurities was
very sensitive to light. Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald
Pearson, invented the first practical device for converting sunlight
into useful electrical power. Resulted in the production of the first
practical solar cells with a sunlight energy conversion efficiency
of around 6%.
• 1958 - First spacecraft to use solar panels was US satellite
Vanguard 1
 Historical Perspective

In 1839, Edmond Becquerel discovered photovoltaic effect. It came to

known as Becquerel effect.

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 Historical Perspective

Selenium Photo Voltaic Cell

1877
Adams and Day

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 Historical Perspective

First Thin Film Selenium Solar Cell

1883 C. E. Fritts, “On a new form of Selenium

Fritts C E Photocell “, American J. of Science, vol.
26, p. 465, 1883

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 Historical Perspective

Quantum Mechanics

1900
Max Plank

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 Historical Perspective

Silicon Solar Cell US patent 1941

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 Historical Perspective
Eff
Solar Cell
(%)
1954 Monocrystalline Silicon (mono-Si) 20
Chapin D M, fuller C S and Polycrystalline Silicon (multi-Si) 18
Pearson G L, Journal of Applied
Thin-film (TFSC) 18
Physic, 1954, 25,676
Gallium Arsenide Germanium
30
(GaAs)
Silicon Diode efficiency ~ 6%
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide 21
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 21
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) 10
Dye Sensitized (DSSC) 11
Organic (OPV) 8
Multi Junction
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(InGAP/GaAs/InGaAs)
Perovskite
Quantum Dot
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 Historical Perspective

Telephone Repeaters

Vanguard I, 1958, 6-Si cell panel, 5mW

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Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell is the basic device that
converts solar radiation into electricity. It
consists of a very thick n-type crystal covered
by a thin n-type layer exposed to the sun light
as shown in the following figure:

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Solar (PV) cell

Solar cell structure

Doping and PN Junction

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Solar Cell

• Solar cells are usually made of two thin

pieces of silicon, the substance that
makes up sand and the second most
common substance on earth.
• One piece of silicon has a small amount
of boron added to it, which gives it a
tendency to attract electrons. It is called
the p-layer because of its positive
tendency.
• The other piece of silicon has a small
amount of phosphorous added to it,
giving it an excess of free electrons. This
is called the n-layer because it has a
tendency to give up negatively charged
electrons.

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Solar Cell

1. Photons in sunlight hit the

solar panel and are absorbed
by semiconducting materials,
such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged)
are knocked loose from their
atoms, allowing them to flow n-type

through the material to

produce electricity. + + + + + + + + Depletion
- - - - - - - - - Zone
+ + + + + + +
3. An array of solar cells - - - - - - - - - p-type

converts solar energy into a

usable amount of direct
current (DC) electricity.
Cell – Module – String - Array
PV
Modules PV
Wafer
cell

PV Strings

PV ARRAY

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Cell – Module – String - Array

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Solar PV System Components
• PV MODULE – converts sunlight into DC electricity.

• SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER– regulates the voltage and current coming from
the PV panels going to battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the
battery life.

• INVERTER– converts DC output of PV panels into a clean AC output to Load and

feed back into grid.

• BATTERY– stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a

demand.

• CABLES : Cables are the lines to connect the components

• LOAD – is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as

lights, radio, TV, computer, refrigerator, etc.

• SAFETY – Circuit breakers, fuses, grounding, surge arrestors, Lightening arrestors

etc

• AUXILIARY ENERGY SORUCES - is diesel generator or other renewable

energy sources.
Solar Cell
Equivalent Circuit of Solar Cell:

I0 = the diode leakage current density in the absence of light.

Vd = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode

q = absolute value of electron charge

k = Boltzmann's constant

T = absolute temperature

gamma is curve fitting constant

PV equivalent circuit
Fundamentals of Photovoltaics

 PV equivalent circuit and characteristics

 PV parameters; short circuit, open circuit and peak

power

 Cell Efficiency

 Fill Factor

 Load line

 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

PV equivalent circuit

Ip is the photocurrent which is directly proportional to the solar intensity

PV cell behaves as a
constant current as
well as constant
voltage source
PV equivalent circuit

Slope in the curve indicates

presence of non-idealities
including shunt and series
impedances

Equivalent circuit of PV cell

 PV equivalent circuit

VT is cell thermal voltage

K is Boltzmann’s constant, q is charge on
electron, T is temperature. Io is the diode
reverse saturation current
PV cell parameters
PV cell parameters
PV cell parameters

Voc increases logarithmically due to increase in solar intensity

PV cell parameters: maximum power

Voc increases logarithmically due to increase in solar intensity

PV cell efficiency

standard insolation, G= 1kW/m2

PV cell efficiency
PV cell efficiency
PV cell Fill Factor
Fill factor is a figure of merit for a PV cell
PV cell Fill Factor
Fill factor is a figure of merit for a PV cell
Load line

1/Ro is the slope of the

load line that cuts the I-V
characteristics of the
module
Load line

maximum power could be

transferred to a load if the
load line lies on the point
corresponding to Vm and Im
on the V-I characteristics of
the PV panel.
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
• A PV module would have a maximum power point for a given
insolation. If a load line crosses at this point, maximum power would be
transferred to the load

• To achieve the transfer of maximum power, it requires that the load

follows the maximum power point, and this is achieved by translating
the actual load line point to maximum power point by varying the duty
cycle
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
 Solar PV System Design

Technology which converts sunlight radiations (photons) into

electricity is called solar photo-voltaic.

Types of PV systems:

-DC, AC, and Hybrid

Design of a PV system:

- Load calculation, battery sizing, PV panel sizing (to determine the

size of array for a given requirement), cable calculations

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 PV System Sizing
Steps of PV system sizing:
Step 1: Determine daily/weekly/hourly load

 AC load , DC load , inverter size , inverter efficiency and total

load

Step 2: Determine the battery bank size

 Battery choice, no of batteries, battery configuration and
charge controller

Step 3: Determine PV array size

 Selecting array, maximum current and voltage, number of
modules, module configuration and geographic location
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 A Solar Power System

Load

Charge
Controller Inverter

Distribution
Battery Board

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Load Calculations

Total Operation
APPLIANCE Wattage Total Watt-hours
watts Hours
4 FANS 150 600 8 4800

6 Bulbs 28 168 8 1344

AC 1 TON
600 600 6 3600
(INVERTER)
1 Motor 600 600 2 1200
LAPTOP,
Charging 800 800 6 4800
devices, TV
TOTAL
POWER 2760 2760 15740
ENERGY 15740
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Inverter and Panel Calculations

Inverter sizing = maximum load x 1.25; Inverter selection = 2760 x 1.25

= 3450 W; Inverter kVA = 3450/pf = 2450/0.85 = 4 kVA

SOLAR MODULE SIZING

Energy required x loss factor (1.3) If you are using each solar
=
Sun Peak Hours average per day module of 400W,
Then No. of PV modules
15740 x 1.3 will be 10.
= = 4092 Wp
5

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Solar radiations pattern

Peak Sun Hours

Space, weather, time

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Solar Radiations in Pakistan
Energy in Pakistan is 3.5 to 7 kWh per m^2 per day

Energy = KWh/m2
Power: W/m2

AJK
Within Pakistan
3.5 to 7 KWh/m2/day

Standard Test
Conditions (STC)

STC 1000W/m2
At 25 Degree C

In Pakistan
1400-2400
KWh/m2/year; and
upto to 1200 W/m2

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World Solar Map
Pakistan

kWh/m2/year:

Baluchistan =
2255

Sind =2071

South Punjab
= 1860

Central
Punjab =
1788

KPK = 1770

Islamabad =
1766

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Types of Solar Radiations

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Pyranometer

Solar radiation is ultraviolet, visible and infrared energy in the

wavelength range of roughly 300-3000nm, with three components.
The global horizontal irradiance (GHI) falling onto the surface of the
Earth comprises the direct normal irradiance (DNI) from the sun and
the diffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI) from the sky

A pyranometer is used for

measuring solar irradiance on a
planar surface and it is designed
to measure the solar radiation flux
density (W/m2).
It measures Global
Horizontal radiations.
Pyranometer

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SOLAR MONITORING STATION

A solar monitoring
station includes a set
of instruments to
measure the
different components
of solar radiation that
are of importance to
solar energy
production; global
horizontal irradiance
(GHI), direct normal
irradiance (DNI) and
diffuse horizontal
irradiance (DHI).

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Sunlight

• Radiation from the Sun, which is

more popularly known as sunlight, is a
mixture of electromagnetic waves
ranging from infrared (IR) to
ultraviolet rays (UV).

• It includes visible light, which is in

between IR and UV in the
electromagnetic spectrum.

• Sun radiations have light and heat

energy.
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Solar Radiations at Spectrum

300 to 3000 nm

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STC – NOCT

• STC stands for Standard Test Conditions. These are measured

under lab conditions of 1000W per sq meter of “sunlight” with a
standard spectrum etc. It is a nominal or name plate value.

• Solar Irradiance = 1000W/m2

• Ambient Temperature = 25 Degree C
• AM=1.5
When the angle of the sun from zenith (i.e.,
the zenith angle, 0) increases, the air mass
increases
• 100W Label will give 100W at STC

• NORMAL OPERATING CELL TEMPERATURE (NOCT) or

NORMAL OPERATING MODULE TEMPRATURE (NOMT) IS
THE REAL ON TEMERATURE OF SOLAR PANELS AND TEST IS
DONE AT 45 DEGREE C AND 800 W/m2
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Solar Constant and STC

The solar zenith angle is the angle between the sun’s rays and the vertical
direction.
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Terms
Watts, KW, KWh, KWp
Watt is Power or Load Demand at one point of time, kW is 1000W and KWh
is Energy consumed and its is equal to kWH and is also called unit. kWp is
the name plate output of PV module at STC

Conversion efficiency of a PV cell

Proportion of sunlight energy that the cell converts into electricity (in %)
Today’s solar cell efficiency: 17 – 24 % (depending on cell type)

Module peak power

• Wp (Watt peak) or kWp (kilowatt peak)
Measure for the peak output of a PV system under Standard
Test Conditions (STC).
• Standard Test Conditions (STC):
Solar irradiation of 1000 W/m², module temperature 25°C and AM 1.5

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Maximum output of a PV module (under ideal conditions)
kWp * number of peak sun hours = kWh

Performance ratio
Real energy yield / theoretical energy yield (in %)
– Depends very much on systems design, cabling, location,
direction, inclination, shading and temperature of modules and
other on-site conditions.
– Practical experience:
• Performance ratio of existing grid-tied
systems: 75 – 80 %
• Performance ratios of existing off-grid 60 – 70 %
systems:
Real output of a PV module
kWp * number of peak sun hours * performance ratio = kWh

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What is solar PV system?

Solar photovoltaic system or Solar power

system is one of renewable energy system which
uses PV modules to convert sunlight into electricity.
The electricity generated can be either stored or
used directly, fed back into grid line or combined
with one or more electricity generator or more
renewable energy source. Solar PV system is
aclean source of electricity that can suit a wide
range of applications such as residence, industry,
agriculture, livestock, etc.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_q6LRgKpTw
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DC Off-Grid System

Battery sizing
Types of PV Systems
and autonomy is important

Solar Panel DC Load

Charge Controller

Battery

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AC Off-Grid System

Types of PV Systems

Solar Panel Off-Grid Inverter AC Load

Meter

Charge Controller

Battery

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DC and AC Off-Grid System

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Anti-Islanding
Islanding refers to the condition of a DG generator that continues to
feed the circuit with power, even after power from the electric utility grid
has been cut off. Islanding can pose a dangerous threat to utility
workers, who may not realize that a circuit is still "live" while attempting
to work on the line.

Distributed generators must detect islanding and immediately stop

feeding the utility lines with power. This is known as anti-islanding.
A grid-tied solar power system is required by net metering law to
have a grid-tied inverter with an anti-islanding function, which
senses when a power outage occurs and shuts itself off.

One common misconception is that a grid-tied system will continue

to generate power during a blackout. Unless there is a battery
back-up system, the grid-tied solar system will not produce power
when the grid is down.

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ON-Grid System without Diesel Generator

Types of PV Systems

NET Meter
Solar Panel

AC Load

Inverter

National Grid

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ON-Grid System with Diesel Generator

Net Meter

Solar Module ATS

AC Load

Inverter

National Grid

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Solar Hybrid System

Types of PV Systems
Net Meter

Hybrid
Solar Module
Inverter

National Grid

Battery AC Load

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Solar Hybrid System with Built-in Solar and Grid Charger
LOW VOLTAGE INVERTER
HIGH VOLTAGE INVERTER

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NET Metering Process

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NET Metering Process

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