CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION
Aviation is the activities surrounding mechanical flight and the aircraft industry. Aircraft
includes fixed-wing and rotary-wing types, morphable wings, wing-less lifting bodies, as
well as lighter-than-air craft such as hot air balloons and airships.

Aviation began in the 18th century with the development of the hot air balloon, an apparatus
capable of atmospheric displacement through buoyancy. Some of the most significant
advancements in aviation technology came with the controlled gliding flying of Otto
Lilienthal in 1896; then a large step in significance came with the construction of the first
powered airplane by the Wright brothers in the early 1900s. Since that time, aviation has
been technologically revolutionized by the introduction of the jet which permitted a major
form of transport throughout the world.

1.2 HISTORY
The history of aviation extends for more than two thousand years, from the earliest forms
of aviation such as kites and attempts at tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight
by powered, heavier-than-air jets.

Kite flying in China dates back to several hundred years BC and slowly spread around the
world. It is thought to be the earliest example of man-made flight. Leonardo da Vinci's 15th-
century dream of flight found expression in several rational designs, but which relied on
poor science.

The discovery of hydrogen gas in the 18th century led to the invention of the hydrogen
balloon, at almost exactly the same time that the Montgolfier brothers rediscovered the hot-
air balloon and began manned flights.[1] Various theories in mechanics by physicists during
the same period of time, notably fluid dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the
foundation of modern aerodynamics, most notably by Sir George Cayley. Balloons, both
free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th
century, with the French government establishing Balloon Companies during
the Revolution.

1.2.1 EARLY BEGINNINGS

There are early legends of human flight such as the stories of Icarus in Greek
myth, Jamshed and Shah Kay kavus in Persian myth, and the flying automaton
of Archytas of Tarentum (428–347 BC). Later, somewhat more credible claims of short-
distance human flights appear, such as the winged flights of Abbas ibn Fines  (810–
887), Eilmer of Malmesbury (11th century), and the hot-air Passarola of Bartholomew
Lourenço de Gusmão (1685–1724).

1.2.2 LIGHTER THAN AIR

The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on
November 21, 1783, of a hot air balloon designed by the Montgolfier brothers. The
practicality of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was
immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required. Jean-Pierre
Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel
in one in 1785.

Rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great
distances. The best known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the
German Zeppelin company.

The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin. It flew over one million miles,
including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the
Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, which had a range of only a few hundred miles,
was diminishing as airplane design advanced. The "Golden Age" of the airships ended on
May 6, 1937, when the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the
Hindenburg accident was initially blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the
lift gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed that the coating used in the
material covering the frame was highly flammable and allowed static electricity to build up
in the airship. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg
type accidents. Although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships
have seen only niche application since that time.

1.3 OPERATIONS OF AIRCRAFT

Operation of aircraft means business of transportation by air of passengers, mail, livestock or
goods carried on by the owners or lessees or charterers of aircraft, including the sale of
tickets for such transportation on behalf of other enterprises, the incidental lease of aircraft
and any other activity directly
1.3.1 CIVIL AVIATION
Civil aviation includes all non-military flying, both general aviation and scheduled air
transport.

1.3.2 AIR TRANSPORT

There are five major manufacturers of civil transport aircraft (in alphabetical order):

 Airbus, based in Europe

 Boeing, based in the United States
 Bombardier, based in Canada
 Embraer, based in Brazil
 United Aircraft Corporation, based in Russia

Boeing, Airbus, Ilyushin and Tupolev concentrate on wide-body and narrow-body

jet airliners, while Bombardier, Embraer and Sukhoi concentrate on regional airliners. Large
networks of specialized parts suppliers from around the world support these manufacturers,
who sometimes provide only the initial design and final assembly in their own plants. The
Chinese ACAC consortium will also soon enter the civil transport market with its Comac
ARJ21 regional jet.

Until the 1970s, most major airlines were flag carriers, sponsored by their governments and
heavily protected from competition. Since then, open skies agreements have resulted in
increased competition and choice for consumers, coupled with falling prices for airlines. The
combination of high fuel prices, low fares, high salaries, and crises such as the September 11
attacks and the SARS epidemic have driven many older airlines to government-bailouts,
bankruptcy or mergers. At the same time, low-cost carriers such
as Ryanair, Southwest and WestJet have flourished.

1.3.3 GENERAL AVIATION

General aviation includes all non-scheduled civil flying, both private and commercial.

General aviation may include business flights, air charter, private aviation, flight
training, ballooning, paragliding, parachuting, gliding, han gliding, aerial photography, foot-
launched powered hang gliders, air ambulance, crop dusting, charter flights, traffic reporting,
police air patrols and forest fire fighting.
Each country regulates aviation differently, but general aviation usually falls under different
regulations depending on whether it is private or commercial and on the type of equipment
involved.

Many small aircraft manufacturers serve the general aviation market, with a focus on private
aviation and flight training.

The most important recent developments for small aircraft (which form the bulk of the GA
fleet) have been the introduction of advanced avionics (including GPS) that were formerly
found only in large airliners, and the introduction of composite materials to make small
aircraft lighter and faster. Ultralight and homebuilt aircraft have also become increasingly
popular for recreational use, since in most countries that allow private aviation, they are
much less expensive and less heavily regulated than certified aircraft.

1.3.4 MILITARY AVIATION

Simple balloons were used as surveillance aircraft as early as the 18th century. Over the
years, military aircraft have been built to meet ever increasing capability requirements.
Manufacturers of military aircraft compete for contracts to supply their government's
arsenal. Aircraft are selected based on factors like cost, performance, and the speed of
production.

Types of military aviation

 Fighter aircraft's primary function is to destroy other aircraft. (e.g. Sopwith Camel, A6M

Zero, F-15, MiG-29, Su-27, and F-22).
 Ground attack aircraft are used against tactical earth-bound targets. (e.g. Junkers
Stuka, A-10, Il-2, J-22 Orao, AH-64 and Su-25).
 Bombers are generally used against more strategic targets, such as factories and oil
fields. (e.g. Zeppelin, Tu-95, Mirage IV, and B-52).
 Transport aircraft are used to transport hardware and personnel. (E.g. C-17 Globemaster
III, C-130 Hercules and Mil Mi-26).
 Surveillance and reconnaissance aircraft obtain information about enemy forces.
(E.g. Rumpler Taube, Mosquito, U-2, OH-58 and MiG-25R).
 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used primarily as reconnaissance fixed-wing
aircraft, though many also carry payloads. Cargo aircraft are in development. (e.g. RQ-
7B Shadow, MQ-8 Fire Scout, and MQ-1C Gray Eagle).
 Missiles deliver warheads, normally explosives.

1.4 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

Air traffic control (ATC) involves communication with aircraft to help maintain separation –
that is, they ensure that aircraft are sufficiently far enough apart horizontally or vertically for
no risk of collision. Controllers may co-ordinate position reports provided by pilots, or in
high traffic areas (such as the United States) they may use radar to see aircraft positions.

Air traffic control specialists, abbreviated ATCS, are personnel responsible for the safe,
orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic in the global air traffic control system. Usually
stationed in air traffic control centers and control towers on the ground, they monitor the
position, speed, and altitude of aircraft in their assigned airspace visually and by radar, and
give directions to the pilots by radio. The position of air traffic controller is one that requires
highly specialized knowledge, skills, and abilities. Controllers apply separation rules to keep
aircraft at a safe distance from each other in their area of responsibility and move all aircraft
safely and efficiently through their assigned sector of airspace, as well as on the ground.
Because controllers have an incredibly large responsibility while on duty (often in aviation,
"on position") and make countless real-time decisions on a daily basis, the ATC profession
is consistently regarded around the world as one of the most mentally challenging careers,
and can be notoriously stressful depending on many variables (equipment, configurations,
weather, traffic volume, traffic type, special activities, governmental actions, human factors).
Many controllers, however, cite high salaries and a large, unique, and privileged degree of
autonomy as major advantages of their jobs.

Although the media in the United States frequently refers to them as air controllers, or flight
controllers, most air traffic professionals use the term air traffic controllers, ATCOs,
or controllers. For a more detailed article on the job itself, see air traffic control.

There are generally four different types of ATC:

 centre controllers, who control aircraft en route between airports

 Control towers (including tower, ground control, clearance delivery, and other services),
which control aircraft within a small distance (typically 10–15 km horizontal, and 1,000
m vertical) of an airport.
 Oceanic controllers, who control aircraft over international waters between continents,
generally without radar service.
 Terminal controllers, who control aircraft in a wider area (typically 50–80 km) around
busy airports.

ATC is especially important for aircraft flying under instrument flight rules (IFR), when
they may be in weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other aircraft. However,
in very high-traffic areas, especially near major airports, aircraft flying under visual flight
rules (VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC.

In addition to separation from other aircraft, ATC may provide weather advisories, terrain
separation, navigation assistance, and other services to pilots, depending on their workload.

ATC do not control all flights. The majority of VFR (Visual Flight Rules) flights in North
America are not required to contact ATC (unless they are passing through a busy terminal
area or using a major airport), and in many areas, such as northern Canada and low altitude
in northern Scotland, Air traffic control services are not available even for IFR flights at
lower altitudes.

1.4.1 CORE SKILLS OF A CONTROLLER

Air traffic controllers are generally individuals who are well organized, are quick with
numeric computations and mathematics, have assertive and firm decision-making skills, are
able to maintain their composure under pressure, and possess an excellent short-term
memory. Through numerous studies throughout the decades, it has been demonstrated that
traffic controllers usually have a superior visual memory, and in addition, studies have
shown that air traffic controllers generally have a degree of situational awareness that is
significantly better than the population average. In 'games' involving short-term memory,
peer-induced stresses, and real-time risk analysis, air traffic control specialists scored better
than the control group in every experiment ]. Excellent hearing and speaking skills are a
requirement, and trainees undergo rigorous physical and psychological testing.

Moreover, the position of the air traffic controller requires some of the strictest medical and
mental requirements for any profession in the world; conditions such
as diabetes, epilepsy, heart disease, and many mental disorders (e.g., clinical
depression, ADHD, bipolar disorder, a history of drug abuse) almost always disqualify
people from obtaining medical certification from the overseeing aviation authority. Almost
universally, controllers are subjected to rigid medical and mental exams to ensure safety in
the air traffic system. In the United States, for example, all air traffic controllers are required
to take and pass a Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory before being hired by
the Federal Aviation Administration. Conditions such as hypertension, while not
disqualifying, are taken seriously and must be monitored with medical examinations by
certified doctors. Controllers must take precautions to remain healthy and avoid certain
medications that are banned for them. Numerous drugs approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) are either banned or would require an air traffic controller to apply
for a Special Consideration Medical Certificate and undergo stringent and continuous
monitoring of the underlying medical condition. Almost universally, trainee controllers
begin work in their twenties and retire in their fifties. This is due to an FAA requirement that
trainees begin their training at the Academy no later than their 31st birthday, and face
mandatory retirement at age 56. However, retired military air traffic controllers may qualify
for appointment after reaching 31 years of age. Communication is a vital part of the job:
controllers are trained to focus on the exact words that pilots and other controllers speak,
because a single misunderstanding about altitude levels or runway numbers can have tragic
consequences. Controllers communicate with the pilots of aircraft using a push-to-
talk radiotelephony system which has many attendant issues, such as the fact that only one
transmission can be made on a frequency at a time and can either merge or block each other
and become unintelligible.

Although local languages are used in ATC communications, the default language of aviation
worldwide is Aviation English. Controllers who do not speak English as a first language are
generally expected to show a certain minimum level of competency.

1.5 AVIATION ACCIDENT AND INCIDENTS

An aviation accident is defined by the Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 13
as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the
time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as all such
persons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or seriously injured, the aircraft
sustains damage or structural failure or the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible.

The first fatal aviation accident occurred in a Wright Model A aircraft at Fort Myer,
Virginia, USA, on September 17, 1908, resulting in injury to the pilot, Orville Wright, and
death of the passenger, Signal Corps Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge.
An aviation incident is defined as an occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the
operation of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety of operations.

An accident in which the damage to the aircraft is such that it must be written off, or in
which the plane is destroyed, is called a hull loss accident.

The top 10 countries with the highest number of fatal civil airliner accidents from 1945 to
2021 are the United States, Russia, Canada, Brazil, Colombia, UK, France, Indonesia,
Mexico, and India. The UK is noted to have the highest number of air crashes in Europe,
with a total of 110 air crashes within the time period, and Indonesia is the highest in Asia at
104, followed by India at 95.

1.5.1 MAJOR DISASTER

The first aircraft accident in which 200 or more people died occurred on March 3, 1974,
when 346 died in the crash of Turkish Airlines Flight 981. As of April 2020, there have been
33 aviation incidents in which 200 or more people died.

The top 10 countries with the highest number of fatal civil airliner accidents from 1945 to
2021 are the United States, Russia, Canada, Brazil, Colombia, UK, France, Indonesia,
Mexico, and India. The UK is noted to have the highest number of air crashes in Europe,
with a total of 110 air crashes within the time period, and Indonesia is the highest in Asia at
104, followed by India at 95.

The largest loss of life on board a single-aircraft is the 520 fatalities in the 1985 Japan
Airlines Flight 123 accident, the largest loss of life in multiple aircraft in a single accident is
the 583 fatalities in the two Boeing 747's that collided in the 1977 Tenerife airport disaster,
while the largest loss of life overall in a collective incident is the 2,996 fatalities in the
coordinated terrorist destruction of airplanes and occupied buildings in the 2001 September
11 attacks.

1.5.2 SEPTEMBER 11 ATTACKS

The deadliest aviation-related disaster, regarding fatalities on both the aircraft and the
ground, was the destruction of the World Trade Center in New York City on September 11,
2001. On that morning, four commercial jet airliners traveling on transcontinental flights
from East Coast airports to California were hijacked after takeoff. The four hijacked aircraft
were subsequently crashed in four coordinated suicide attacks against major American
landmarks by 19 Islamic terrorists affiliated with Al-Qaeda. American Airlines Flight
11 and United Airlines Flight 175 were intentionally crashed into the North and South
Towers of the World Trade Center, respectively, destroying both buildings in less than two
hours. The World Trade Center crashes killed 2,753, the vast majority of fatalities being
occupants of the two towers or emergency personnel responding to the disaster. In addition,
184 were killed by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77, which crashed into the
Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, causing severe damage and partial destruction to the
building's west side. The crash of United Airlines Flight 93 into a field in Somerset County,
Pennsylvania, killed all 40 passengers and crew aboard the aircraft, after the hijackers
crashed it to prevent it from being retaken by the passengers. This brought the total number
of casualties of the September 11 attacks to 2,996 (including the 19 terrorist hijackers). As
deliberate terrorist acts, the 9/11 crashes were not classified as accidents, but as mass-killing.
The events were treated by the United States and the member nations of NATO as an act of
war and terrorism. The War on terror was subsequently launched by the United States and
NATO in response to the attacks.

1.6 SAFETY
In over one hundred years of implementation, aviation safety has improved considerably. In
modern times, two major manufacturers still produce heavy passenger aircraft for the
civilian market: Boeing in the United States, and the European company Airbus. Both of
these manufacturers place a huge emphasis on the use of aviation safety equipment, now a
billion-dollar industry in its own right; safety is a key selling point for these companies, as
they recognize that a poor safety record in the aviation industry is a threat to corporate
survival.

Some major safety devices now required in commercial aircraft are:

 Evacuation slides, to aid rapid passenger exit from an aircraft in an emergency situation
 Advanced avionics, incorporating computerized auto-recovery and alert systems
 Turbine engines with improved durability and failure containment mechanisms
 Landing gear that can be lowered even after loss of power and hydraulics

Measured on a passenger-distance calculation, air travel is the safest form of transportation

available: Figures mentioned are the ones shared by the air industry when quoting air safety
statistics. A typical statement, e.g., by the BBC: "UK airline operations are among the safest
anywhere. When compared against all other modes of transport on a fatality per mile basis,
air transport is the safest – six times safer than travelling by car and twice as safe as rail."

When measured by fatalities per person transported, however, buses are the safest form of
transportation. The number of air travel fatalities per person is surpassed only by bicycles
and motorcycles. This statistic is used by the insurance industry when calculating insurance
rates for air travel.

For every billion kilometers traveled, trains have a fatality rate that is 12 times higher than
that of air travel, and the fatality rate for automobiles is 62 times greater than for air travel.
By contrast, for every billion journeys taken, buses are the safest form of transportation;
using this measure, air travel is three times more dangerous than car transportation, and
almost 30 times more dangerous than travelling by bus.

A 2007 study by Popular Mechanics magazine found that passengers sitting at the back of an
aeroplane are 40% more likely to survive a crash than those sitting at the front. The article
quotes Boeing, the FAA, and a website on aircraft safety, all of which claim that there is no
"safest" seat. The study examined 20 crashes, not taking into account the developments in
safety after those accidents. However, a flight data recorder is usually mounted in the
aircraft's empennage (tail section) where it is more likely to survive a severe crash.

Between 1983 and 2000, the survival rate for people in U.S. plane crashes was greater than
95 percent.

1.6.1 GLOBAL AERONAUTICAL DISTRESS AND SAFETY SYSTEM

In an effort to prevent incidents such as the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight

MH370, a new standard has been issued requiring all commercial aircraft to report their
position every 15 minutes to air traffic controllers regardless of the country of origin.
Introduced in 2016 by the ICAO, the regulation has no initial requirement for any new
aircraft equipment to be fitted. The standard is part of a long-term plan, called the Global
Aeronautical Distress and Safety System (GADSS), which will require new aircraft to be
equipped with data broadcast systems that are in constant contact with air traffic
controllers. The GADSS is similar to the Global Maritime Distress and Safety
System (GMDSS) used for maritime safety.

1.6.2 AVIATION SAFETY REPORTING SYSTEM

The Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) collects voluntarily submitted aviation safety
incident/situation reports from pilots, controllers and others. The ASRS uses reports to
identify system deficiencies, issue alert messages, and produce two
publications, CALLBACK, and ASRS Directline. The collected information is made
available to the public, and is used by the FAA, NASA and other organizations working in
research and flight safety.

1.6.3 BUREAU OF AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS ARCHIVES (B3A)

The Bureau of Aircraft Accidents Archives (B3A), a non-government organization based

in Geneva, compiles statistics on aviation accidents of aircraft capable of carrying more than
six passengers, excluding helicopters, balloons, and combat aircraft. Note that ACRO only
considers crashes in which the aircraft has suffered such damage that it is removed from
service, which will further reduce the statistics for incidents and fatalities compared to some
other data. The total fatalities due to aviation accidents since 1970 is 83,772. The total
number of incidents is 11,164.

According to ACRO, recent years have been considerably safer for aviation, with fewer than
170 incidents every year between 2009 and 2017, compared to as many as 226 as recently as
1998.[56]

The annual fatalities figure is less than 1,000 for ten of the fourteen years between 2007 and
2020, the year 2017 experiencing the lowest number of fatalities, at 399, since the end of
World War II.

2014 included the disappearance of flight MH370 over the Indian Ocean and the shoot down

of flight MH17 as part of the war in Donbas. The total number of fatalities in 2014 was 869
more than in 2013.

1.6.4 Annual Aviation Safety Review (EASA)

The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is tasked by Article 15(4) of Regulation

(EC) No 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of February 20, 2008, to
provide an annual review of aviation safety. The Annual Safety Review presents statistics on
European and worldwide civil aviation safety. Statistics are grouped according to type of
operation, for instance, commercial air transport, and aircraft category, such as aero planes,
helicopters, gliders, etc. The Agency has access to accident and statistical information
collected by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). States are required,
according to ICAO Annex 13, on Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation, to report to
ICAO information, on accidents and serious incidents to aircraft with a maximum
certificated take-off mass (MTOM) over 2250 kg. Therefore, most statistics in this review
concern aircraft above this mass. In addition to the ICAO data, a request was made to the
EASA Member States to obtain light aircraft accident data. Furthermore, data on the
operation of aircraft for commercial air transport were obtained from both ICAO and
the NLR Air Transport Safety Institute.

1.7 Investigation
Annex 13 of the Chicago Convention provides the international Standards And
Recommended Practices that form the basis for air accident and incident investigations by
signatory countries, as well as reporting and preventive measures.[64] The International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) is specifically focused on preventing accidents, rather than
determining liability.

1.7.1 AUSTRALIA

In Australia, the Australian Transport Safety Bureau is the federal government body

responsible for investigating transport-related accidents and incidents, covering air, sea, and
rail travel. Formerly an agency of the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional
Development and Local Government, in 2010, in the interests of keeping its independence it
became a stand-alone agency.

1.7.2 BRAZIL

In Brazil, the Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center (CENIPA) was

established under the auspices of the Aeronautical Accident Investigation and Prevention
Center, a Military Organization of the Brazilian Air Force (FAB). The organization is
responsible for the activities of aircraft accident prevention, and investigation of civil and
military aviation occurrences. Formed in 1971, and in accordance with international
standards, CENIPA represented a new philosophy: investigations are conducted with the
sole purpose of promoting the "prevention of aeronautical accidents".

1.7.3 CANADA

In Canada, the Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB), is an independent agency

responsible for the advancement of transportation safety through the investigation and
reporting of accident and incident occurrences in all prevalent Canadian modes of
transportation – marine, air, rail and pipeline.

1.7.4 ETHIOPIA

In Ethiopia, the Civil Aviation Accident Prevention and Investigation Bureau of

the Ethiopian Civil Aviation Authority (ECAA), which is an agency of the Ministry of
Transport and Communications, conducts aircraft accident investigations in Ethiopia or
involving Ethiopian aircraft.

1.7.5 FRANCE

In France, the agency responsible for investigation of civilian air crashes is the Bureau
d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (BEA). Its purpose is to
establish the circumstances and causes of the accident and to make recommendations for
their future avoidance.

1.8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Aviation is a critical part of the economy of a nation, providing for the movement of people
and goods throughout the world, enabling its economic growth. In the last four decades,
there has been a 60% increase in aviation fuel efficiency and a 95% reduction in the number
of people affected by aircraft accidents. Despite this progress, there is a compelling and
urgent need of addressing the environmental effects of aviation industries, however small it
is. Immediate action is required to address the independent challenges of climate change,
local air quality and aviation noise. These effects are anticipated to grow as the economy and
demand for air transportation grow. And hence, these may become the fundamental
constraints on the growth of air transportation in 21 st century, if proper measures are not
taken immediately.

Like all activities involving combustion, operating powered aircraft (from airliners to hot air
balloons) releases soot and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide (CO2) are also produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts
specific to aviation: for instance,

 Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the tropopause (mainly large jet airliners) emit

aerosols and leave contrails, both of which can increase cirrus cloud formation – cloud
cover may have increased by up to 0.2% since the birth of aviation. Clouds can have
 both a cooling and warming effect. They reflect some of the sun's rays back into space,
but also block some of the heat radiated by Earth's surface. On average, both thin natural
cirrus clouds and contrails have a net warming effect.
 Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the tropopause can also release chemicals that
interact with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly nitrogen compounds,
which interact with ozone, increasing ozone concentrations.
 Most light piston aircraft burn avgas, which contains tetraethyllead (TEL). Some lower-
compression piston engines can operate on unleaded mogas, and turbine engines and
diesel engines – neither of which require lead – are appearing on some newer light
aircraft.

Another environmental impact of aviation is noise pollution, mainly caused by aircraft

taking off and landing. Sonic booms were a problem with supersonic aircraft such as
the Concorde
 CHAPTER - II
INDUSTRY PROFILE

2. INTRODUCTION
The aviation industry encompasses almost all aspects of air travel and the activities that help
to facilitate it. This means it includes the entire airline industry, aircraft manufacturing,
research companies, military aviation, and much more. In this article, you will learn all you
need to know about aviation and the industry that surrounds it.

2.1 WHAT IS THE AVIATION INDUSTRY?

The term ‘aviation’ is most commonly used to describe mechanical air transportation, which
is carried out using an aircraft. The two main types of aircraft are aeroplanes and helicopters,
but most modern definitions of the word ‘aviation’ extend beyond this to include the use of
unmanned aircraft, such as drones.

With this in mind, the aviation industry can be described as all industry that surrounds these
activities.

2.2 THE EVOLUTION OF THE INDUSTRY

In January 1914, some 11 years after the Wright brothers' historic flight, the first known
commercial air passenger operator in the United States was established in Florida (Komons,
1978:16). For three winter months, on a more or less regular basis, the St. Petersburg-Tampa
Airboat Line shuttled passengers back and forth across 23 miles of water between the two
cities after which it was named. Then, with the coming of spring, tourists moved north, and
the airline went out of existence. The country's second known airline, Aero Limited, started
in August 1919 to carry passengers between New York and Atlantic City, then moved to
Florida and flew between Miami and Nassau. By early 1920, it, too, had ceased operations.
Other small airlines came (and sometimes went) during the 1920s. In an era of remarkable
invention and rapid change in transportation, commerce, and world affairs, these fledgling
airlines rose and fell without action or interference from the government.

Government involvement in civilian aviation began, not with passenger airlines, but with the
U.S. Post Office airmail service. (For a summary of the airline industry's early development,
see Meyer and Oster, 1981: Chapter 2; greater detail can be found in Davies, 1972.) As early
as 1916, funds for the carriage of airmail were provided from monies appropriated for
"Steamboats or Other Power Boat Service," but not until 1918 did the Post Office translate
its desire for an airmail service into action. Early airmail, like early passenger service, was
not successful because of the relatively slow speed and the range limitations of early aircraft.
Only with the advent of transcontinental airmail service were the real advantages of the air
mode demonstrated. As an infrastructure for these transcontinental routes, the Post Office by
1925 had developed a system of landing fields and flashing beacons from New York to San
Francisco capable of supporting both daytime and night time operations.
Thus, commercial air transportation in the United States began with a number of small
passenger companies whose presence was often no more than transient and with a subsidized
airmail service operated by the U.S. Post Office.

The first major piece of U.S. civil aeronautics legislation was the Contract Mail Act of 1925,
known as the Kelly Act for its principal sponsor. Under the Kelly Act, the postmaster
general was authorized to award airmail contracts to private airlines. Contracts were
awarded through the issuance of route certificates, which gave a company the right to carry
mail on a specific route. These route certificates initially had a 4-year limit, which was soon
extended to a 10-year maximum limit. The Post Office worked to expand the domestic route
system by avoiding competition on individual routes and using its power to award routes to
streamline and rationalize the industry. Consequently, by 1933, the "Big Four"—United,
American, TWA, and Eastern—collected nearly 94 percent of the $19.4 million paid to
airmail contractors.

Because of some irregularities in the Post Office actions regarding airmail contracts, the
successor to the Kelly Act, the Watres Act (the Air Mail Act of 1930), was nullified and
existing airmail contracts were canceled for a brief period in 1934. The U.S. Army Air
Corps took over carriage of the mail, serving fewer routes on a more limited basis. They
proved to be ill equipped and untrained for even this more limited service and suffered a
series of highly publicized accidents. Airmail service was quickly returned to civilian
companies with temporary, competitive bid contracts. In June 1934, the Black-McKellar Act
was passed, giving permanence to these temporary contracts by authorizing the postmaster
general to extend their life for an additional nine months, after which they could be
"continued in effect for an indefinite period" (Komons, 1978:266-267). On the shorter
routes, new companies entered the field, but the "Big Four" kept the longer routes mainly
because only they had the equipment and training to fly them.

Developments in transportation regulation during the 1930s were greatly influenced by the
catastrophic economic scene. Against the backdrop of the National Industrial Recovery Act
of 1933 and its interest in wage rules, the National Labor Board established a formula for
pilot pay that continues to influence how pilots are compensated. In 1933 the board agreed
to arbitrate an industry-wide pilot pay dispute. Pilots feared that the introduction of larger
and faster planes would reduce their incomes if pay continued to be based on hourly wage
rates. In its Decision 83, the Labor Board established a compromise pay formula based on
seniority, hours flown, and the average speed of the plane. In 1934 the pilots' union
successfully lobbied Congress to require airlines to comply with Decision 83 in order to hold
an airmail contract (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1992:5-6).

The Great Depression in addition so affected American philosophy that the very basis of the
U.S. economic system, the concept of open competition, came under attack. Much economic
regulation in the 1930s was a response to what was considered to be excessive or cutthroat
competition. Additional reasons for regulation can arise, moreover, when an inherently
competitive industry receives subsidies; under such conditions, bidding for new businesses
can be at prices well below cost, allowing for expansion with the use of subsidy to make up
the cost/price difference. Such behavior did occur among the airlines in the 1930s, and the
government sought to subdue competition of this sort so as to minimize subsidy payments.

Developed in this era, the Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 formed the basis for federal
aviation policies and authority and remained the primary influence until the time of
deregulation in 1978. The 1938 act created the Civil Aeronautics Authority, which was
reorganized into the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) in 1940. Among the Civil Aeronautics
Authority's first actions under the new law was to grant "grandfather" rights, which gave
existing airlines permanent certificates for all of their existing route authorities, as long as
they met regulatory requirements. These certificates put a stamp of approval on the airline
structure that the Post Office had developed, essentially freezing the system of the Big Four
plus 12 independents. Through mergers in the intervening years, these 16 carriers evolved
into the 10 domestic "trunk" or primary airlines that existed when deregulation started. 1
Although there were many applications to enter into

1. As of October 1978, these airlines were American, Braniff, Continental, Delta, Eastern,
National, Northwest, Trans World, United, and Western. In addition, Pan American was a
trunk airline for international routes. Scheduled domestic airline service, no new trunk
carriers were allowed to enter the industry under CAB regulation.

A basic tool of CAB regulation was its authority to issue "Certificates of Public
Convenience and Necessity." Each certificate applied to a specific route, much like the
certificates issued by the Post Office. An airline was required to have such a certificate
before it offered scheduled airline service. The only exceptions were commuter airline
operations with small aircraft.
Even though no new trunk carriers were permitted, the CAB, with considerable prodding
from Congress, did allow some new entrants into the industry under special restrictions. In
1944 the CAB initiated an experiment to expand air service to small communities. This
experiment eventually led to the formation of the so-called local service airlines,2 intended
to provide feeder service for the trunk airlines. The certificates of the local service airlines
were changed from experimental to permanent in 1955. Through a combination of growth,
government subsidy, and CAB route policies, many of these local service airlines came to
resemble small trunk airlines in their operation. Even so, they retained a distinct regional
focus in their route networks prior to deregulation.

A second type of entrant into the industry was the supplemental carrier. These carriers were
permitted to offer only non-scheduled charter flights to groups of travelers. Initially,
supplemental carriers were established by the CAB on an interim basis, but in 1966 they
were given permanent status. Many of the applications to become scheduled carriers came
from this group of supplemental carriers. Conversely, most of the trunk airlines conducted
some charter operations.

The authority to issue certificates also allowed the CAB to control the route structure of each
airline. Each certificate applied to a single route and specified the cities on either end of the
route and the intermediate stops. The specification of intermediate stops was quite detailed
and often included stops that had to be made, stops that could be made, and stops that could
not be made. In addition, there were occasionally restrictions on carrying passengers
between intermediate stops. Through the use of these certificates, the CAB could control the
route structure of each airline as well as the numbers of carriers permitted to compete in each
city-pair market.

The CAB used route awards to pursue diverse policy objectives. Monopoly route awards
were often given the applicant in the weakest financial position in an attempt to strengthen
that carrier and maintain stability in the industry. Route awards were also used as a way to
reduce the subsidies paid to local service airlines for service to small communities. Thus,
local service airlines were sometimes given longer routes, which were believed to be more
profitable, with the intention that these profits would cross-subsidize the losses on low-
density short-haul routes.

2. As of October 1978, these airlines were US Air (formerly Allegheny), Frontier, Hughes
Airwest, North Central, Ozark, Piedmont, Southern, and Texas International.
The certificates were also used to control exit, since a carrier could not stop serving a route
without CAB approval. Some exit occurred, though, as the trunk airlines were permitted to
turn over a few of their low-density short-haul routes to local service airlines. Starting in the
late 1960s, the local service airlines and to a lesser extent the trunk airlines were permitted to
hand over a few of their routes to noncertificated commuter airlines (who flew regular
schedules but used smaller airplanes than the trunk and local service airlines).

The CAB also controlled airline fares. It could regulate fares in two different ways: (1) by
approving, modifying, or rejecting requests for fare changes filed by individual carriers and
(2) by directly setting either the exact fares or a narrow range of permissible fares. When the
CAB set fares directly, it used a formula that had distance as its only variable. Thus, for the
most part, all routes of the same length had the same fares for all the airlines.

The CAB was also clearly able to control the structure of the industry. In addition to
influencing the size of the firms through the awarding of new routes, it had the authority to
approve mergers of airline companies. In general, the CAB took a restrictive view of
mergers, granting approval only to maintain industry stability when one of the merging
airlines was in serious financial trouble.

The extent of these controls and the manner in which the CAB applied them had profound
impacts on the development of the industry. Some of these impacts are still seen today.
Under CAB regulation, for example, the airlines had very little incentive to keep labor costs,
and particularly pilot salaries, low. If an airline involved in contract negotiations with pilots
pushed for pilot salaries below the industry average, it risked a strike by the pilots. During
that strike, the airline would lose considerable revenue from canceled operations. If the
airline ultimately prevailed and the pilots accepted salaries below the industry average, what
would the airline gain? It could not increase its market share by lowering its fares because
fares were regulated by the CAB. Similarly, it could not increase its market share by
expanding into new markets, because the CAB controlled routes and entry and seldom
allowed carriers to enter new markets, particularly those already served by an incumbent
carrier. With lower costs, it could earn more profits on each flight, but too much financial
success would result in other airlines gaining preference for new route awards. Thus the
gains from lower labour costs were small and rarely were judged by airline management to
outweigh the losses incurred during a strike. The airlines knew that the CAB routinely
adjusted fares to follow changes in the average industry costs. Thus, there was an incentive
for airlines to grant wage increases as long as they were in line with average industry wage
practices, because the resulting cost increases would be translated into higher fares for all
airlines.

2.3 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE AVIATION

INDUSTRY AND THE AIRLINE INDUSTRY

The terms ‘aviation industry’ and ‘airline industry’ are sometimes thought of as being

interchangeable, but they do actually describe different things. An airline is a business
offering air transportation services for people or cargo, with the airline industry being the
collective term used to describe these companies.

However, the airline industry forms just one part of the wider aviation industry. In addition
to airlines, the aviation industry also includes aircraft manufacturers, researchers, air safety
specialists, businesses involved with military aviation and, increasingly, companies that
design, produce and/or make use of drones.

2.4 WHY IS THE AVIATION INDUSTRY IMPORTANT?

The importance of the modern aviation industry is difficult to overstate, but one of the main
reasons for this importance is the globalised nature of the industry, helping to connect
different continents, countries and cultures. As a result, global aviation has been key in
facilitating efficient travel to distant places, enriching many lives in the process.

The aviation industry has also been a key contributor to global economic prosperity, not only
as a result of the tourism industry boosting local economies, but also because it has allowed
for improvements to global trade.

Meanwhile, the aviation industry also directly provides millions of jobs for people around
the world, with examples including everything from pilots and cabin crew, through to air
traffic controllers and aerospace engineers. On top of this, the aviation industry has helped to
create many jobs in the wider travel and tourism industry too.

2.5 CIVIL & MILITARY AVIATION

Within the aviation sector, there are two main categories of flight: civil and military. In
simple terms, civil aviation refers to all aviation that is not connected to the military.
Crucially, this includes both private and commercial air travel, regardless of whether flights
are carrying passengers, cargo or a combination of the two.

By contrast, military aviation refers to the use of aircraft within military settings. Typically,
this kind of air transportation is designed to enable aerial warfare, or perform surveillance
operations. The majority of military aviation is related to air forces; however, the concepts
of army aviation, navy aviation and coast guard aviation do also exist.

While the categories of civil aviation and military aviation are distinct from one another in
most ways, there is a degree of cross-over too. For instance, some airports around the world
help to facilitate both civil and military aviation, while certain businesses within the aviation
industry cater for both civil and military aviation clients.

2.6 THREE LARGE AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURING

COMPANIES WITHIN THE AVIATION INDUSTRY
Aircraft manufacturing is crucial to the aviation industry and the following three companies
are among the largest:

2.6.1 AIR BUS

Within the Aviation industry, Airbus is a large European aircraft manufacturing company,
which produces aircraft for both the civilian and military aviation markets. Most of its
production facilities are located in France, Germany and Spain, while its headquarters is
located within the Netherlands. It is currently the world’s largest airline manufacturer, while
the Airbus A380, used by airlines like Emirates and Lufthansa, is recognised as the world’s
largest passenger airliner.

2.6.2 BOEING
Another large manufacturing company within the aviation sector is Boeing. Based in the
United States, Boeing is generally classed as the second-largest airline manufacturer, as well
as being one of the largest defence contractors in the world. The company headquarters is
situated in Chicago, Illinois. In addition to producing commercial and military jets, Boeing
is also heavily involved in the manufacture of spacecraft. Some of its best-known
commercial aeroplane models include the Boeing 737, the Boeing 747 and the Boeing 777

2.6.3 LOCKHEED MARTIN

Lockheed Martin has its headquarters in Maryland, in the United States. Within the aviation
industry, Lockheed Martin is recognized as the world’s largest defence contractor,
specializing in military aviation and the production of fighter and reconnaissance aircraft for
air forces around the world. The company was formed through a merger between Lockheed
Corporation with Martin Marietta and some of its best-known aeroplanes have included the
F-16 Fighting Falcon and the F-35 Lightning II.

More Aircraft Manufacturing Companies

In the article “Aerospace Companies: List of Aircraft and Spacecraft Manufacturers”, you’ll

find a complete overview of aircraft manufacturers.

2.7 WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF AIRLINES?

Airlines can be broadly divided into three main types, which can be described as follows:

2.7.1 INTERNATIONAL

As the name suggests, these airlines operate on an international basis, offering flights to
multiple overseas destinations, on top of their domestic services. Also known as “major
airlines”, they include the industry’s biggest names, such as American Airlines and Delta Air
Lines, and tend to operate with a significant fleet of large aircraft. In many cases, they make
billions in annual revenue and will often employ tens of thousands of people.
2.7.2 NATIONAL

Although national airlines are smaller than their international counterparts, they may still
offer some overseas services. However, they are primarily connected to a single country,
often with all of their main hubs there, and will usually focus more on facilitating domestic
air travel. They generally operate with a fleet of medium-to-large aircraft and will bring in
hundreds of millions in annual revenue, while employing thousands of people.

2.7.3 REGIONAL

Regional airlines are smaller than international and national ones, typically focusing on the
kinds of areas that do not receive much (or any) service from those airlines. Their annual
revenue is usually less than 100 million, they tend to have smaller fleets and use aircraft with
fewer than 100 passenger seats. In some cases, regional airlines partner with larger airlines,
helping to transport customers to major hubs for connecting flights.

2.8 SEVEN LARGEST AIRLINE COMPANIES IN THE

WORLD

Although there are a number of ways to measure the largest airlines in the world, one of the
most frequently used metrics is revenue passenger-kilometres (RPKs). It is calculated by
multiplying the number of annual revenue passengers by the total distance travelled. Using
this metric

THE FOLLOWING SEVEN AIRLINES CURRENTLY COME OUT ON

TOP:

2.8.1 AMERICAN AIRLINES

Widely recognized as the world’s largest airline, not only in terms of revenue passenger-
kilometers, but also in terms of fleet size and total passengers carried, American Airlines has
been offering passenger services since 1936. The company is based in Fort Worth, Texas,
and is a member of the one world airline alliance.
American Airlines operates with a fleet of close to 1,000 aircraft, flies to almost 100
international destinations and handles more than 200 million annual passengers. Its largest
hub is Dallas/Fort worth International Airport.

2.8.2 DELTA

Within the aviation industry, Delta Air Lines is a legacy carrier airline, which has been
offering passenger services since 1929. The company has its headquarters in Atlanta,
Georgia, and provides services to more than 200 million passengers each year, operating
with a fleet of around 900 aircraft. Its main hub is Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International
Airport.

In total, the airline offers flights to more than 300 destinations, spread across 50 different
countries. Delta is also recognized as the largest member of the Sky Team airline alliance.

2.8.3 UNITED

Offering passenger flights since 1931, United Airlines has a fleet of around 800 aircraft and
serves more than 300 destinations. It is widely recognized as the third largest airline in the
world and its headquarters is located in Chicago, Illinois, with Chicago O’Hare International
Airport serving as its largest hub. United Airlines caters for more than 150 million annual
passengers and is a key member of the Star Alliance.

2.8.4 EMIRATES

Emirates are a state-owned airline, based in the city of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It has
been offering passenger services since 1985 and, in addition to being the fourth largest
airline in the world, as measured by RPKs; it is also the second-largest airline in the world
when it comes to the movement of cargo or freight.

The airline operates with a fleet of more than 250 aircraft, provides flights to more than 80
countries and has its main hub at Dubai International Airport. It is not a member of any
airline alliance.

2.8.5 SOUTHWEST
Southwest Airlines is a low-cost airline within the aviation sector, which has been offering
passenger services since 1971. Regarded as the largest low-cost carrier in the world, the
company has a fleet of more than 700 aircraft, and offers flights to around 100 destinations –
most of which are in the United States, Mexico and Central America.

The company’s headquarters is situated in Dallas, Texas, and it has a total of 11 crew bases
throughout the United States. However, rather than using a hub system, Southwest Airlines
operates via point-to-point transit. 

2.8.6 CHINA SOUTHERN AIRLINES

China Southern Airlines has its headquarters in the city of Guangzhou and has been offering
passenger services since 1988. The airline has a fleet of more than 600 aircraft, provides
flights to more than 200 global destinations and is recognized as the largest airline in Asia,
based on RPKs, fleet size and the total number of annual passengers.

It has hubs at Beijing Capital International Airport, Beijing Daxing International Airport and
Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport. Until 2020, China Southern was part of the
SkyTeam airline alliance. 

2.8.7 RYANAIR

Based in Dublin, Ireland, Ryanair is a low-cost airline within the aviation sector, which has
been offering commercial flights since 1985. Its main operational bases are Dublin Airport
and London Stanstead, and the company has several sister airlines, including Malta Air and
Lauda. In total, the airline has a fleet of more than 300 aircraft.

Ryanair is especially notable for offering more routes and carrying more international
passengers than any other airline in the world, even including the likes of American Airlines
and Delta Air Lines. 

2.9 FOUR MAIN BUSINESS MODELS FOR AIRLINES

The aviation market is extremely diverse and airlines, in particular, each have their own
approaches. With that being said, the majority of airlines follow one of the four main
business models:
2.9.1 FULL-SERVICE

Full-service carriers are often either former state-owned flag carriers, which have since been
privatized, or airlines which are still under state ownership. However, this is not always the
case in all parts of the world. Instead, the defining characteristic is the provision of a full
range of services, which are included with the price of a ticket.

This means passengers receive their baggage allowance and any in-flight meals at no
additional cost. Most full-service carriers have a customer loyalty scheme, rewarding
frequent flyers, while lounge services at airport hubs may also be on offer. Examples include
American Airlines, Emirates Airline and British Airways.

2.9.2 LOW-COST

As the name suggests, the low-cost model is based around the idea of reducing operating
costs and selling airline tickets based on the appeal of a lower price. To provide these lower
prices, however, many of the additional services that are included with the price of a full-
service airline ticket are either not offered, or are sold as optional extras.

In-flight meals are not included with the price of a ticket, with food and drink sold separately
on the flight, often above standard market value. Passengers will also typically pay extra for
baggage and may not book a specific seat on the plane, choosing seats when they board
instead. Examples include Ryanair and Southwest Airlines.

2.9.4 CARGO/FREIGHT

Lastly, cargo/fright airlines are either primarily or exclusively involved in the transportation
of goods via the air. These flights are often scheduled overnight. Some companies are solely
focused on transport from one airport to another, while others have active involvement in the
subsequent movement of goods across land too.

Well-known carriers that are exclusively focused on cargo and freight include UPS Airlines,
FedEx Express and DHL Aviation. However, some of the largest cargo airlines in the world
are subsidiaries of airlines that also offer passenger services. Examples of this include
Emirates SkyCargo, Delta Air Freight and China Cargo Airlines
2.10 INDUSTRY SCENARIO

The rise in demand for air travel in India has necessitated the development of a robust
ecosystem and supportive government policies.

Through the National Civil Aviation Policy 2016 (NCAP) the government plans to take
flying to the masses by enhancing affordability and connectivity. It promotes ease of doing
business, deregulation, simplified procedures, and e-governance.
The Regional Connectivity Scheme or UDAN (‘Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik’) is a vital
component of NCAP 2016. The scheme plans to enhance connectivity to India's unserved
and under-served airports and envisages tomake air travel affordable and widespread. Under
the scheme 10 airports were operationalised, 335 routes awarded covering 33 routes and
more than 2500000 passengers were flown in 2019. In third phase of UDAN, the civil
aviation ministry introduced seaplane operations from water aerodromes. So far 14 water
aerodromes have been identified in the states of Gujarat, Assam, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep.
The National Civil Aviation Policy (NCAP) significantly covers the MRO industry and
specifically focuses on easing the pain points that have traditionally impacted the Indian
aviation sector. In April 2020, the Goods and Services Tax for MRO services rendered
locally was reduced from 18% to 5%. The ‘place of supply’ for B2B MRO services was
changed to the ‘location of recipient’, enabling Indian MRO facilities to claim zero-rating
(i.e., export status) under GST laws on MRO services rendered to prime contractor/OEM
located outside India. This has been an extremely crucial policy amendment as it will
encourage global participation in the Indian aviation sector by allowing foreign MRO
operators to subcontract MRO work to Indian entities without any extra tax liability.
The aircraft leasing and financing businesses are operated from the International Financial
Services Centre (IFSC) and GIFT City provides the off-shore status for financial
services. Read More
MOCA released Krishi UDAN 2.0. The Scheme lays out the vision of improving value
realization through better integration and optimization of Agri-harvesting and air
transportation and contributing to Agri-value chain sustainability and resilience under
different and dynamic conditions. The scheme will be implemented at 53 airports across the
country mainly focusing on Northeast and tribal regions and is likely to benefit farmer,
freight forwarders and Airlines. The Ministry of Civil Aviation plans to pilot the scheme for
6 months, and, will introduce amendments based on results of the evaluation & consultations
with other stakeholders.
Monetising Assets: AAI has formed joint ventures in seven airports. Recently, it awarded six
airports — Ahmedabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Guwahati, Thiruvananthapuram, Mangaluru —
for operations, management and development under PPP for a period of 50 years. As per
National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP), 25 AAI airports have been earmarked for asset
monetisation between 2022 and 2025.