INTEGERS

Integers are like whole numbers, but they also include negative numbers ... but still no
fractions allowed!

So, integers can be negative {−1, −2,−3, −4, ... }, positive {1, 2, 3, 4, ... }, or zero {0}

We can put that all together like this:

Integers = { ..., −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }

Examples: −16, −3, 0, 1 and 198 are all integers.

(But numbers like ½, 1.1 and 3.5 are not integers)

These are all integers and they continue left and right infinitely:

Example

And everyone agrees on the definition of an integer, so when in doubt say "integer".

And when you only want positive integers, say "positive integers". It is not only accurate, it
makes you sound intelligent. Like this (note: zero isn't positive or negative)

Integers = { ..., −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }

Negative Integers = { ..., −4, −3, −2, −1 }
Positive Integers = { 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }
Non-Negative Integers = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }

You can use integers to help represent many real world situations, such as:
 Increases and decreases in temperature.
 Profits and losses of money
 Locations above and below sea level.
 RATIO
A ratio says how much of one thing there is compared to another thing.

There are 3 blue squares to 1 yellow square

Ratios can be shown in different ways:
Use the “:” to separate the values: 3:1
Or we can use the word “to”: 3 to 1
Or write it like a fraction: 3/1

A ratio can be scaled up:

Here the ratio is also 3 blue squares to 1 yellow square,

even though there are more squares.

Using Ratios
The trick with ratios is to always multiply or divide the numbers by the same value.
Example:

4 : 5 is the same as 4×2 : 5×2 = 8 : 10

Recipes

Example: A Recipe for pancakes uses 3 cups of flour and 2 cups of milk.
So the ratio of flour to milk is 3 : 2

To make pancakes for a LOT of people we might need 4 times the quantity, so we multiply
the numbers by 4:

3×4 : 2×4 = 12 : 8
In other words, 12 cups of flour and 8 cups of milk.
The ratio is still the same, so the pancakes should be just as yummy.
"Part-to-Part" and "Part-to-Whole" Ratios
The examples so far have been "part-to-part" (comparing one part to another part).
But a ratio can also show a part compared to the whole lot.

Example: There are 5 pups, 2 are boys, and 3 are girls

Part-to-Part:
The ratio of boys to girls is 2:3 or 2/3

Part-to-Whole:
The ratio of boys to all pups is 2:5 or 2/5
The ratio of girls to all pups is 3:5 or 3/5

Scaling

We can use ratios to scale drawings up or down (by multiplying or dividing).

The height to width ratio of the Indian Flag is 2:3
So for every 2 (inches, meters, whatever) of height there should be 3 of width.

If we made the flag 20 inches high, it should be 30 inches wide.

If we made the flag 40 cm high, it should be 60 cm wide (which is still in the ratio 2:3)

Example: To draw a horse at 1/10th normal size, multiply all sizes by 1/10th

This horse in real life is 1500 mm high and 2000 mm long, so the ratio of its height to
length is
1500 : 2000

What is that ratio when we draw it at 1/10th normal size?

1500 : (2000
= 150×1/10 : 2000×1/10
= 150 : 200
We can make any reduction/enlargement we want that way.
Proportions
Proportion says that two ratios (or fractions) are equal.

Example:

So 1-out-of-3 is equal to 2-out-of-6

The ratios are the same, so they are in proportion.

Example: Rope
A rope's length and weight are in proportion.
When 20m of rope weighs 1kg, then:
 40m of that rope weighs 2kg
 200m of that rope weighs 10kg
 etc.

So:
20/1 = 40/2

Sizes
When shapes are "in proportion" their relative sizes are the same
Here we see that the ratios of head length to body length are the same in both
drawings.

So they are proportional.

Making the head too long or short would look bad!
Using Proportions to Solve Percents
A percent is actually a ratio! Saying "25%" is actually saying "25 per 100":
25% = 25/100

We can use proportions to solve questions involving percents.

The trick is to put what we know into this form:
Part/Whole = Percent/100

Example: what is 25% of 160 ?

The percent is 25, the whole is 160, and we want to find the "part":

Multiply across the known corners, then divide by the third number:

Answer: 25% of 160 is 40.

Note: we could have also solved this by doing the divide first, like this:

Either method works fine.

We can also find a Percent:

Example: what is $12 as a percent of $80 ?

Fill in what we know:

Multiply across the known corners, then divide by the third number. This time the
known corners are top left and bottom right:
Answer: $12 is 15% of $80

Ways to Write a Proportion

Proportion is a statement showing that two ratios are equal. There are two ways to write
a proportion:

Both can be read as “a is to b as c is to d“

Next, let‟s identify the parts of a proportion.

 COLON FORM

In colon form, the extremes are the two outermost values, while the means are the two
innermost values.
 FRACTION FORM (Standard Form)
In a fraction form, the extremes are the values hit by a diagonal drawn from top left to
bottom right, while the means are the values hit by a diagonal drawn from the
bottom left to top right.

Order of Operations
"Operations" mean things like add, subtract, multiply, divide, squaring, etc. If it isn't a
number it is probably an operation.

But, when you see something like ...

7 + (6 × 52 + 3)
... what part should you calculate first?
Start at the left and go to the right?
Or go from right to left?

Order of Operations
Do things in Parentheses First

Exponents (Powers, Roots) before Multiply, Divide, Add or Subtract

Multiply or Divide before you Add or Subtract

Otherwise just go left to right

How Do I Remember It All ... ? PEMDAS !

Divide and Multiply rank equally (and go left to right).

Add and Subtract rank equally (and go left to right)

So do it this way:
After you have done "P" and "E", just go from left to right doing any "M" or "D" as you
find them.
Then go from left to right doing any "A" or "S" as you find them.

Note: in the UK they say BODMAS (Brackets,Orders,Divide,Multiply,Add,Subtract), and in

Canada they say BEDMAS (Brackets,Exponents,Divide,Multiply,Add,Subtract). It all
means the same thing! It doesn't matter how you remember it, just so long as you get
it right.

Examples

Example: How do you work out 3 + 6 × 2 ?

Multiplication before Addition:
First 6 × 2 = 12, then 3 + 12 = 15

Example: How do you work out (3 + 6) × 2 ?

Parentheses first:
First (3 + 6) = 9, then 9 × 2 = 18

Example: How do you work out 12 / 6 × 3 / 2 ?

Multiplication and Division rank equally, so just go left to right:
First 12 / 6 = 2, then 2 × 3 = 6, then 6 / 2 = 3

Exponents of Exponents ...

What about this example?

Exponents are special: they go top-down (do the exponent at the top first). So we
calculate this way:
And finally, what about the example from the beginning?
Real Numbers have properties
Example: Multiplying by zero
When we multiply a real number by zero we get zero:
 5×0=0
 −7 × 0 = 0
 0 × 0.0001 = 0

It is called the "Zero Product Property", and is listed below.

Properties
Here are the main properties of the Real Numbers
Real Numbers are Commutative, Associative and Distributive:

Real Numbers are closed (the result is also a real number) under addition and
multiplication:

Adding zero leaves the real number unchanged, likewise for multiplying by 1:
For addition the inverse of a real number is its negative, and for multiplication the
inverse is its reciprocal:

But not for 0 as 1/0 is undefined

Multiplying by zero gives zero (the Zero Product Property):

Multiplying two negatives make a positive, and multiplying a negative and a positive
makes a negative:
Laws of Exponents
Exponents are also called Powers or Indices
The exponent of a number says how many times to use the number in
a multiplication.
In this example: 82 = 8 × 8 = 64
In words: 82 could be called "8 to the second power", "8 to the power 2" or simply "8
squared"

Exponent saves us writing out lots of multiplies!

Example: a7
a7 = a × a × a × a × a × a × a = aaaaaaa

The "Laws of Exponents" (also called "Rules of Exponents") come from three ideas:
The exponent says how many times to use the number in a multiplication.

A fractional exponent like 1/n means to take the nth

root:

A negative exponent means divide, because the opposite of multiplying is dividing

Laws of Exponents
Here are the Laws (explanations follow):
Angles
An angle measures the amount of turn
Names of Angles
As the Angle Increases, the Name Changes:

Angles are measured in degrees; a complete whole turn is 360º as shown.

Different types of angles
Straight angle: It is one-half of a whole turn, and is the same as the angle made by
rays going in opposite directions. The measure of the angle is 180º. Some examples
are shown below:

Right angle: It is one-quarter of a whole turn and is the same as the angle made by a
horizontal line and vertical line. The measure of the angle is 90º. Some examples
are shown below:

Acute angles: The angles that lie between 0º and 90º are called acute. Some examples
are shown below:

Obtuse angles: The angles that lie between 90º and 180º are called obtuse. Some
examples are shown below:
Reflex angles: The angles that lie between a straight angle (180º) and a whole turn
(360º) are called reflex angles. Some examples are shown below:

Application of angles
We see angles almost everywhere in our day to day life. For example, the angle made by
the hands of a clock, the angle made by two intersecting roads, and angles made
by blades of a fan. We also use angles for navigation of planes and ships.

Fun Facts
 Angulus is the Latin word from which the word angle is derived.
Is it a Polygon?
Polygons are 2-dimensional shapes. They are made of straight lines, and the shape is
"closed" (all the lines connect up).
Polygon comes from Greek. Poly- means "many" and -gon means "angle".

Types of Polygons
Regular or Irregular
A regular polygon has all angles equal and all sides equal, otherwise it is irregular

Concave or Convex
A convex polygon has no angles pointing inwards. More precisely, no internal angle can
be more than 180°.
If any internal angle is greater than 180° then the polygon is concave. (Think: concave
has a "cave" in it)
Simple or Complex
A simple polygon has only one boundary, and it doesn't cross over itself.
A complex polygon intersects itself! Many rules about polygons don't work when it
is complex.

More Examples
Names of Polygons
Area of Plane Shapes
Example: What is the area of this rectangle?
Example: What is the area of this circle?

Example: What is the area of this triangle?

A harder example:
Example: Sam cuts grass at $0.10 per square meter
How much does Sam earn cutting this area:
Let's break the area into two parts:

Part A is a square:
Area of A = a2 = 20m × 20m = 400m2
Part B is a triangle. Viewed sideways it has a base of 20m and a height of 14m.
Area of B = ½b × h = ½ × 20m × 14m = 140m2
So the total area is:
Area = Area of A + Area of B = 400m2 + 140m2 = 540m2
Sam earns $0.10 per square meter
Sam earns = $0.10 × 540m2 = $54

Simple interest refers to the money that can be earned by initially investing some
money (the principal). A percentage (the interest) of the principal is added to the
principal, making the initial investment grow. This type of interest is applicable for
a short-term duration, usually in days, weeks, months or even a few years with not
so large amounts of money

Factors of Simple Interest

There are only 3 common factors to be considered with regards to simple interest.
1. Principal. This is the amount of money being borrowed. This could be loaned from a
bank or any loaning establishment or borrowed from a person. This will be the
basis of how much will be paid with the additional compensation for borrowing.
2. Rate of Interest. This is the percent to be used to calculate the additional amount to
be paid along with the principal. Common rates of interest ranges from 1 to 10%
but it can also be higher depending on the agreement between the parties.
3. Time. This is the period from the beginning when the money was borrowed to the
period that when the money should be returned with the additional amount
(interest). This can also be called a term or deadline. This should properly and
strictly be observed especially in huge amount of loans.

 Simple Interest Equation (Principal + Interest) A = P (1 + rt )

where:
 A = Total Accrued Amount (principal + interest)
 P = Principal Amount
 I = Interest Amount
 r = Rate of Interest per year in decimal; r = R/100
 R = Rate of Interest per year as a percent; R = r * 100
 t = Time Period involved in months or years

From the base formula, A = P (1 + rt ) derived from A = P + I and since I = Prt then A = P
+ I becomes A = P + Prt which can be rewritten as A = P(1 + rt ).

 Note that rate r and time t should be in the same time units such as months or years.
 Rate r should be in decimal form; r = R /100
 Accrued value is also known as „future value‟

DERIVED FORMULA
 Calculate Interest, solve for I o I = Prt
 Calculate Total Amount Accrued (Principal + Interest), solve for A o A = P( 1 + rt )
 Calculate Principal Amount, solve for P o P = A / (1 + rt )
 Calculate rate of interest in decimal, solve for r o r = (1/t) (A / P - 1)
 Calculate rate of interest in percent o R = r * 100
 Calculate time, solve for t o t = (1/r)(A/P - 1)

Example. A 2-year loan of Php500 is made with 4% simple interest. Find the interest
earned.

Solution.
Identify the values given in the problem.

Given:
 Time is 2 years: t = 2
 Initial amount is Php500: P = 500
 The rate is 4%. Write this as a decimal: r = 0.04

Now apply the formula:

I = Prt = 500 (0.04) (2) = 40 Answer:
The interest earned is Php40.

Example. A business takes out a simple interest loan of Php10000 at a rate of 7.5%.
What is the total amount the business will repay if the loan is for 8 years?

Solution.
The total amount they will repay is the future value, A.
Given:
t=8
r = 0.075
P = 10000

Using the simple interest formula for future value:

A = P ( 1 + rt ) = 10000 (1 + 0.075 (8) ) = 16000
Answer: The business will pay back a total of Php16000.

Compound interest is the concept of adding the accumulated interest back to the
principal sum, so that interest is earned on top of interest from that moment on.
The act of declaring interest to be principal is called compounding.

Compound interest, or 'interest on interest', is calculated by multiplying the principal

amount by one plus the annual interest rate to the power of the number of
compound periods to get a combined figure for principal and compound interest.
Subtract the principal if you want just the compound interest.

Interest can be compounded on any given frequency schedule, from continuous to daily
to annually. When calculating compound interest, the number of compounding
periods makes a significant difference.
The formula used in the compound interest calculator is
A=
 A = the future value of the investment
 P = the principal investment amount
 r = the interest rate (decimal)
 n = the number of times that interest is compounded per period
 t = the number of periods the money is invested for

Example. An investment earns 3% compounded monthly. Find the value of an initial

investment of Php5000 after 6 years.

Solution.
 Determine what values are given and what values you need to find.
 Earns 3% compounded monthly: the rate is r = 0.03 and the number of times
compounded each year is n = 12
 Initial investment of Php5000: the initial amount is the principal, P=5000
 6 years: t = 6

 You are trying to find A, the future value (the value after 6 years). Now apply the
formula with the known values:
A=
A = 5000 (1 + 0.0312)^12×6
A ≈ 5984.74
The value after 6 years will be Php5984.74.

Example. What is the value of an investment of Php3500 after 2 years if it earns 1.5%
compounded quarterly?
 As before, we are finding the future value, A. In this example, we are given:
 Value after 2 years: t = 2
 Earns 3% compounded quarterly: r = 0.015 and n = 4 since compounded quarterly
means 4 times a year
 Principal: P = 3500

A=
A = 3500 (1 + 0.0154)^4×2
A ≈ 3606.39
The value after 2 years will be Php3606.39.
How To Solve Age Word Problems?
If the problem involves a single person, then it is similar to an Integer Problem. Read
the problem carefully to determine the relationship between the numbers.
Example:
Five years ago, John‟s age was half of the age he will be in 8 years. How old is he
now?
Solution:
Step 1: Let x be John‟s age now. Look at the question and put the relevant
expressions above it.

Step 2: Write out the equation.

Isolate variable x

If the age problem involves the ages of two or more people then using a table would be a
good idea. A table will help you to organize the information and to write the
equations.
How To Solve Age Problems Involving More Than One Person?
Example:
John is twice as old as his friend Peter. Peter is 5 years older than Alice. In 5
years, John will be three times as old as Alice. How old is Peter now?
Solution:
Step 1: Set up a table.

Step 2: Fill in the table with information given in the question.

John is twice as old as his friend Peter. Peter is 5 years older than Alice. In 5
years, John will be three times as old as Alice. How old is Peter now?

Let x be Peter‟s age now. Add 5 to get the ages in 5 yrs.

Write the new relationship in an equation using the ages in 5 yrs.
In 5 years, John will be three times as old as Alice.
2x +5= 3(x –5+5)
2x + 5 = 3x
x=5
Answer: Peter is now 5 years old.

Example:
John‟s father is 5 times older than John and John is twice as old as his sister
Alice. In two years time, the sum of their ages will be 58. How old is John now?

Solution:
Step 1: Set up a table.

Step 2: Fill in the table with information given in the question.

John‟s father is 5 times older than John and John is twice as old as his sister
Alice. In two years time, the sum of their ages will be 58. How old is John now?

Let x be John‟s age now. Add 2 to get the ages in 2 yrs.

Write the new relationship in an equation using the ages in 2 yrs.

In two years time, the sum of their ages will be 58.

Answer: John is now 8 years old