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Vitamin D Metabolism in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) - Obgyn Key
Vitamin D Metabolism in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) - Obgyn Key
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Vitamin D metabolism
Vitamin D is a steroid hormone, synthesized mainly by the skin on exposure to natural sunlight, with < 10%–20% deriving from the diet . Vitamin D is
hydroxylated to 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) or calcifediol by the liver; then, calcifediol is converted by renal 1α-hydroxylase to the active form 1,25-
dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25-(OH) 2 D 3 ] or calcitriol. The enzyme 1α-hydroxylase is expressed in other tissues, such as ovaries, brain, breast, prostate, and
colon, thus permitting the local synthesis of the active form of vitamin D and paracrine effects . Calcitriol circulates in the blood bound to vitamin D-binding
protein until its target tissues where it acts via binding to the nuclear vitamin D receptor (VDR) . In a study on VDR binding throughout the human genome using
chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by massively parallel DNA sequencing (ChIP-seq), Ramagopalan et al. identified 2776 genomic positions occupied by
VDR and 229 genes significantly responsive to vitamin D stimulation in more than 30 different tissues, such as skeleton, brain, breast, pancreas, parathyroid
glands, immune cells, cardiomyocytes and reproductive organs, including ovaries, placenta, uterus, and testes .
The main physiologic role of vitamin D is to promote intestinal calcium absorption and to regulate osteoclast function, maintaining calcium/phosphorus
homeostasis and controlling bone mineralization; however, vitamin D has pleiotropic effects . In addition to its role in calcium-regulating tissues, vitamin D has
been implicated in a wide range of extra-skeletal effects such as glucose homeostasis, cardiovascular disease, cancer, reproductive dysfunctions, autoimmune
diseases, and endocrine conditions, including polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) .
The guidelines of the Endocrine Society defined vitamin D deficiency as 25(OH)D levels < 20 ng/mL and insufficiency as a level between 21 and 29 ng/mL .
Vitamin D deficiency is very common worldwide not only in the older population but also in the younger population . A relatively high prevalence of vitamin D
deficiency is observed in women with PCOS (about 67%–85%) .
Vitamin D appears to regulate follicular maturation through a direct effect on anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) gene, whose product is considered a marker of the
ovarian reserve, via a vitamin D-response element (VDRE) located in the human AMH promoter region . Furthermore, vitamin D promotes the differentiation
and the development of human granulosa cells (GC) . AMH is secreted by the GC of preantral/antral ovarian follicles; however, women with PCOS have
abnormally increased levels of serum and intrafollicular AMH, due to a rise in the number of arrested small antral follicles, besides AMH hypersecretion by the
GC themselves . In a study on GC of the hen, calcitriol significantly decreased the expression of AMH mRNA levels . However, in a study on 54 women who
underwent in vitro fertilization, Merhi et al. found a twofold increase in AMHR-II expression in GC of women with insufficient follicular fluid 25(OH)D (< 30 ng/mL)
compared with women with follicular fluid vitamin D levels > 30 ng/mL . Furthermore, exposure of human GC to vitamin D3 increased progesterone production
in the presence of pregnenolone, suggesting that vitamin D alters AMH signaling and steroidogenesis in human cumulus GC, possibly reflecting a state of GC
luteinization potentiation. . Another in vitro study on human ovarian cells showed that, upon binding to VDR, vitamin D3 increases estrogen, progesterone,
estrone, and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 secretion . Moreover, vitamin D3 acted synergistically with insulin to stimulate estradiol production, and
vitamin D enhanced the inhibitory effect of insulin on IGFBP-1 production .
In vitro, vitamin D is capable of increasing 3β-HSD mRNA levels and progesterone production in the ovarian GC; thus, it may enhance key steroidogenic
enzymes involved in the synthesis of androgens and estrogens . In addition, vitamin D modulates follicular sensitivity to FSH . Although the relationship between
vitamin D and FSH receptor (FSHR) is unclear, there is evidence for a correlation between AMHR-II and FSHR gene expression, with a probable involvement of
vitamin D in the regulation of both AMHR-II and FSHR . Although conflicting, these findings suggest that vitamin D influences AMH gene expression and
probably, it could neutralize the inhibitory effect of AMH on GC differentiation and follicular growth by inhibiting AMHR-II expression and downstream signaling .
In the last few years, it has been debated whether vitamin D is capable of influencing ovarian folliculogenesis, as indicated by the AMH levels and what kind of
relationship exists . Most cross-sectional studies demonstrated a negative correlation between serum levels of AMH and serum levels of vitamin D, but other
studies reported a positive relationship . Such differences could be explained by the heterogeneity in the enrolled populations, the individual vitamin D levels
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and the seasonal variations . Interventional studies revealed that vitamin D supplementation influences AMH serum levels but the effect depends on the
ovulatory status of the women: AMH levels increase in ovulatory non-PCOS women but they decrease in women with PCOS .
Recent studies revealed that women with PCOS have significantly lower follicular fluid sRAGE levels and that there is a significant positive correlation between
sRAGE and 25(OH)D levels, both in women with PCOS and without PCOS . Vitamin D supplementation in women with PCOS induce (a) increased serum
levels of sRAGE permitting to bind circulating AGEs that would otherwise adversely affect ovarian function and (b) decreased AMH levels . Furthermore, vitamin
D could attenuate the AGE-induced ovarian dysfunction .
PTH concentrations are found to be increased in women with PCOS compared with BMI-matched control individuals . Furthermore, obese (but not overweight)
patients with PCOS exhibit significantly higher PTH concentrations than women with PCOS having normal BMI . Apparently, when the effect of adiposity is not
as strong, such as in overweight patients, PCOS contributes independently to increased PTH serum levels . Studies have also shown a direct correlation
between serum levels of PTH concentrations and serum levels of testosterone, independently of BMI and an inverse relationship between vitamin D levels and
androgen levels . Indeed, it seems that administration of high doses of vitamin D (ergocalciferol 50,000 units weekly or biweekly) for 6 months attenuated
hyperandrogenism in 13 women with chronic anovulation due to PCOS, with two of them becoming pregnant . It is possible that a direct relationship between
PTH and PCOS exists and that the beneficial effects of vitamin D on hyperandrogenemia are mediated by the action of vitamin D on insulin sensitivity .
The exact mechanism that links vitamin D deficiency to IR is unknown . Vitamin D appears to regulate the glyco-insulin homeostasis via direct and indirect
actions, namely: (a) stimulation of insulin release through the expression of VDR and the enzyme 1α-OHase in the pancreatic β-cells; (b) increased
responsiveness of glucose transport to insulin through the binding of the 1,25(OH)D-VDR complex to the vitamin D response element of the insulin receptor at
the tissue level; (c) suppression of the release of proinflammatory cytokines that are believed to mediate IR; and (d) regulation of intracellular and extracellular
ionic calcium levels, which are essential for insulin-mediated actions .
Supplementation with both vitamin D and calcium (often in addition with metformin) appears to reduce IR and serum androgens in vitamin D-deficient women
with PCOS with consequent improvement in hirsutism and menses regularity . A recent review and metaanalysis evaluated the effect of vitamin D
supplementation (alone or with co-supplementation) on IR in a total of 601 patients with PCOS . Supplementation with continuous low doses of vitamin D (<
4000 IU/day) or supplementation with vitamin D as a co-supplement may improve insulin sensitivity reducing the fasting glucose concentration (about 6.3% with
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supplementation of vitamin D and other micronutrients), the mean fasting insulin levels (about 22% in some trials), and HOMA-IR . Particularly, HOMA-IR
decreased significantly in subgroups of patients supplemented with continuous low dose of vitamin D ( P = .001) and daily administration ( P = .002) compared
to nonsupplemented patients whereas less benefit was found in patients supplemented with high dose and weekly intake of vitamin D . However, a more recent
review showed better results after supplementation with high doses of vitamin D (4000 IU), compared with low dose (1000 IU) or placebo, for a period of at least
12 weeks . Also, a recent metaanalysis including 10 randomized controlled trials and comparing the effect of vitamin D supplementation with placebo in vitamin
D-deficient PCOS women, confirmed a significant reduction of fasting glucose levels but no significant effect on fasting insulin concentration and HOMA-IR was
observed . In conclusion, vitamin D replacement may have some beneficial effects on IR .
Usually, serum DHEAS, testosterone, SHBG, and free androgen index (FAI) are used to evaluate the androgenic profile and vitamin D deficiency that are
associated with abnormalities in these markers . For instance, some studies on women with PCOS have reported inverse associations between serum 25(OH)D
levels and testosterone, DHEAS, FAI, and SHBG . Furthermore, hirsute PCOS women have lower 25(OH)D levels than BMI-matched control women .
Vitamin D supplementation may significantly decrease serum total testosterone, while being ineffective in improving other androgenic markers, such as SHBG
or free testosterone . Beneficial results with significant reduction of serum free testosterone and DHEAS were reported in PCOS women after calcium/vitamin D
supplementation . Vitamin D supplementation could have a benefit in metabolic syndrome related to PCOS . A recent review highlighted that vitamin D
supplementation at high doses (4000 IU) for at least 12 weeks, may improve serum levels of SHBG, FAI, and total testosterone . Randomized placebo-
controlled trials are needed to confirm the beneficial effect of vitamin D on hyperandrogenemia and to evaluate the dose and the duration of vitamin D
supplementation that are capable of improving the androgenic profile . A recent randomized clinical trial reported that, compared with 30 placebo-treated
controls, vitamin D supplementation at 50000 IU/week for 12 weeks in 30 overweight women with PCOS decreased hirsutism score, FAI and increased SHBG
and 25(OH)D levels, with significant changes in ovaries ultrasonography and menstrual cycle regularity .
However, in literature, contrasting results have been reported with some studies showing an improvement of lipid parameters such as HDL, Tg, total cholesterol,
and VLDL , whereas others showed no beneficial effects . A recent metaanalysis including 520 women with vitamin D-deficient PCOS showed that vitamin D
supplementation had no significant effects on HDL-C, LDL-C, and Tg, whereas it decreased total cholesterol levels significantly both at low doses (< 4000
IU/day) and high doses (≥ 4000 IU/day) . Furthermore, the effect of vitamin D on lipid parameters could be influenced by duration of treatment and the dose.
Concerning duration, conclusions cannot be definitive because for some parameters, such as total cholesterol, 8 weeks of vitamin D supplementation are
sufficient to achieve the goal, while other parameters, such as VLDL, need a more prolonged supplementation . Vitamin D supplementation could be suggested
to patients with PCOS who are at high risk of its deficiency and have an atherogenic lipid profile .
The deficit of vitamin D is associated with decreased probability of live birth after IVF . Kermak et al. demonstrated the benefit of a 6-week vitamin D
supplementation (enriched in omega-3 fatty acids and olive oil) in both men and women before in vitro fertilization . The benefit was in terms of positive
influence on the developing embryo and morphokinetic markers of embryo quality . A prospective cohort study found that vitamin D deficiency is a significant
predictive parameter for both follicle development and pregnancy in anovulatory infertile women with PCOS who underwent clomiphene citrate stimulation .
Normalization of vitamin D levels in infertile women with PCOS and IR improves IVF outcomes, such as quality of embryos and clinical pregnancy rate . Thus,
maintaining a normal serum vitamin D level in women with PCOS is very important for achieving a successful clinical pregnancy following assisted reproductive
technology .
Conclusions
Vitamin D is a pleiotropic hormone, influencing also the reproductive axis, with its pathway being involved in the pathogenesis of PCOS. Indeed:
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–
the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency is relatively high in patients with PCOS (67%–85%);
–
VDR polymorphic variants are linked with PCOS and its severity phenotypes;
–
an association exists between low vitamin D levels and each of obesity, hyperandrogenism, IR, and other metabolic dysfunctions that are PCOS-related;
–
supplementation of vitamin D in vitamin D-deficient women with PCOS improves menstrual regularity, fertility, BMI, lipidic profile, IR, dysglycemia, and
cardiovascular risk.
Many trials are needed to clarify the role and all possible effects of vitamin D on PCOS parameters. Vitamin D is an orally administered, inexpensive, and
relatively well tolerated vitamin. Considering its many functions, its administration should be measured as a treatment in women with PCOS, obese and
nonobese, in addition to insulin sensitizing agents and antioxidants .
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Starting from the basics management of polycystic
ovary syndrome
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Everything starts in utero
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