International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition,

Volume 55, Number 3 (May 2004) 171
/178

Fatty acid profile, tocopherol, squalene and phytosterol content of walnuts,

almonds, peanuts, hazelnuts and the macadamia nut

L. S. Maguire, S. M. O’Sullivan, K. Galvin, T. P. O’Connor and N. M. O’Brien

Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland

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Nuts are high in fat but have a fatty acid profile that may be beneficial in
relation to risk of coronary heart disease. Nuts also contain other potentially
cardioprotective constituents including phytosterols, tocopherols and squalene.
In the present study, the total oil content, peroxide value, composition of fatty
acids, tocopherols, phytosterols and squalene content were determined in the
oil extracted from freshly ground walnuts, almonds, peanuts, hazelnuts and the
macadamia nut. The total oil content of the nuts ranged from 37.9 to 59.2%,
while the peroxide values ranged from 0.19 to 0.43 meq O2/kg oil. The main
monounsaturated fatty acid was oleic acid (C18:1) with substantial levels of
palmitoleic acid (C16:1) present in the macadamia nut. The main polyunsa-
turated fatty acids present were linoleic acid (C18:2) and linolenic acid (C18:3).
For personal use only.

a-Tocopherol was the most prevalent tocopherol except in walnuts. The levels
of squalene detected ranged from 9.4 to 186.4 mg/g. b-Sitosterol was the most
abundant sterol, ranging in concentration from 991.2 to 2071.7 mg/g oil.
Campesterol and stigmasterol were also present in significant concentrations.
Our data indicate that all five nuts are a good source of monounsaturated fatty
acid, tocopherols, squalene and phytosterols.

Introduction

There is increasing evidence that diets that
include nuts may be beneficial in decreasing
the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD).
Nuts are high in fat; however, as greater than
75% of the fat present is unsaturated fat, nuts
are thought to have a fatty acid profile that
is cardioprotective. Monounsaturated fatty
acids (MUFA) are the predominant fatty
acids and contribute, on average, approxi-
mately 62% of the energy in nuts from fat
(Kris-Etherton et al ., 1999a).
It is widely recognized that the type of
fat in the diet influences plasma cholesterol
levels to a greater extent than total fat intake.
Therefore, replacing saturated fat with un-
saturated fat may be more effective in
lowering the risk of CHD than reducing the
total fat intake (O’Byrne et al ., 1997; Kris-
Etherton et al ., 1999b). Kris-Etherton et al .
(1999b) reported that diets high in MUFA
have a favourable effect on the ratio of total
cholesterol:high-density lipoprotein (HDL)

Correspondence to: N. M. O’Brien. E-mail: nob@ucc.ie

ISSN 0963-7486 printed/ISSN 1465-3478 online

# 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/09637480410001725175
 172 L. S. Maguire et al.
cholesterol, which is a more accurate indica-
tor of risk for CHD than total cholesterol
level alone. Diets high in MUFA reduce
levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
without adversely affecting the HDL frac-
tion, thereby reducing risk of CHD.
Epidemiological evidence indicates that
frequent nut consumption lowers the risk of
CHD (Hu et al ., 1998; Rajaram et al ., 2001;
Albert et al ., 2002). However, there is emer-
ging evidence that the decreased risk is not
solely related to the fatty acid profile, but
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may be due to the presence of other bioactive
trace components present in nuts. Kris-
Etherton et al . (2001) summarized the find-
ings from 11 clinical studies regarding the
total and lipoprotein-cholesterol response
following incorporation of nuts into various
diets. Using predictive equations, the actual
change in CHD risk was compared with the
estimated response based on fatty acid pro-
files (Kris-Etherton et al ., 2001). Results
indicate the actual change in CHD risk was
For personal use only.
greater than the estimated response based on
fatty acid profiles in most instances across all
levels of nut consumption. These results,
therefore, suggest that other bioactive com-
ponents, in addition to fatty acids, are
present in nuts that further reduce CHD
risk. Current food databases contain little
compositional data for nuts, particularly with
respect to potentially bioactive compounds
including phytosterols, squalene and toco-
pherols (Holland et al ., 1992).
Phytosterols are found in plant foods and
are structurally and functionally analogous
to cholesterol in vertebrate animals. b-Sitos-
terol, campesterol and stigmasterol are the
most commonly occurring phytosterols and
constitute 95% of total phytosterols in the
diet. In addition to nuts, phytosterols are
found in a range of seeds, legumes, vegetables
and unrefined vegetable oils (Weihrauch &
Gardner, 1978). The effects of dietary sup-
plementation with phytosterols on serum
cholesterol levels in humans have been re-
viewed comprehensively by several authors
(Gylling & Miettinen, 2000; Law, 2000;
Moreau et al ., 2002; Neil & Huxley, 2002).
In general, phytosterol supplementation
tends to decrease serum levels of total and
LDL cholesterol, and has little effect on
serum levels of HDL cholesterol and trigly-
cerides.
Squalene is a 30-carbon, straight-chain
hydrocarbon steroid precursor that is pro-
duced by both animal and plant cells. Squa-
lene is converted to phytosterols in plant cells
(Goodwin, 1996). A number of reports
suggest squalene possesses antioxidant func-
tions. It has been demonstrated to be an
effective quencher of singlet oxygen and
prevents lipid peroxidation in model systems
(Kohno et al ., 1995). Fan et al. (1996)
reported that squalene inhibited sodium
arsenite-induced sister chromatid exchanges
in Chinese ovary-K1 cells and suggested that
the inhibitory effects may be due to its
antioxidant activity. More recently, O’Sulli-
van et al. (2002) demonstrated that squalene
was very effective in protecting against H2O2-
induced SCE in Chinese hamster V79 cells.
Tocopherols are powerful antioxidants and
in high doses have been shown to lower the
risk of CHD (Rimm & Stampfer, 1997). This
cardioprotective effect is thought to be due to
inhibition of LDL cholesterol oxidation, a
key step in the atherogenic process.
The aim of the present study was to
determine and compare the total oil content,
fatty acid composition, peroxide value (a
measure of oxidative stability), tocopherol,
phytosterol and squalene content of walnuts,
almonds, peanuts, hazelnuts and the maca-
damia nut.
Materials and methods
Nut samples
Five types of edible nuts were analysed in this
study; walnuts, almonds, peanuts, hazelnuts
and the macadamia nut. The nuts were
bought from a local health food store in
Cork. Solvents (high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) grade) were pur-
chased from Rathburn Chemicals Ltd.
(Walkerburn, Scotland).
Lipid extraction
Nuts (2 g) were finely ground using a
Moulinex Optiblend 2000. The oil from the
finely ground samples was extracted by a
modification of a procedure previously de-
scribed by Savage et al . (1997). Briefly, oil
 Fatty acid, tocopherol, squalene and phytosterol in nuts
was extracted with 6 ml hexane/isopropanol
(3:2, v/v) at room temperature under vigor-
ous stirring for 1 h in glass beakers to
facilitate homogenization of the nuts. The
nut preparations were filtered through a
Buchner funnel under vacuum, and the
residues were washed twice with 4 ml hex-
ane/isopropanol solvent. Thereafter, 7 ml of
6.7% sodium sulphate (w/v) were added and
the samples were vortexed for 30 sec and
centrifuged at 2000 r.p.m. for 10 min. The
solvent layer was removed, dried under
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nitrogen and the pure oil was weighed to
calculate the percentage yield.
Peroxide value
The peroxide value was determined following
the International Dairy Federation standard
method 74A (International Dairy Federa-
tion, 1991, Brussels, Belgium). Freshly ex-
tracted oil (0.1 g) was weighed into a glass
test-tube and 9.8 ml chloroform/methanol
For personal use only.
(70:30) was added and mixed. Following this,
one drop of ammonium thiocyanate solution
(30 g/100 ml) and one drop of ferrous
chloride were added and the tubes vortexed.
The mixed solution was allowed to stand in
subdued light for 5 min and the absorbance
was measured at 505 nm against a reagent
blank (9.9 ml chloroform/methanol mix, one
drop of ferrous chloride and one drop of
ammonium thiocyanate solution). The per-
oxide value of the oil was expressed as meq of
oxygen/kg fat.
Saponification for sterol, tocopherol and
squalene analysis
Briefly, 40 mg oil was mixed thoroughly with
300 ml of 50% KOH (w/v) and 2 ml of 1%
ethanolic pyrogallol (w/v) in screw-top tubes
fitted with Teflon lined screw-caps. The tubes
were kept for 30 min at 708C in a water bath.
The tubes were cooled on ice and 1 ml water
and 4 ml hexane were added. The tubes were
shaken vigorously and then centrifuged at
2000 r.p.m. for 10 min. The hexane layer was
removed and the extraction repeated with a
further 2 ml hexane. The combined hexane
extracts were dried under nitrogen. The
extract was redissolved in 200 ml ethanol,
173
transferred to a plastic insert in a HPLC vial
and stored at /208C for later analysis by
HPLC.
Analyses of phytosterols, squalene and
tocopherols by HPLC
The HPLC system consisted of a Waters 510
pump and a Waters 717 plus autosampler
(Waters Corporation, Milford, Massachu-
setts, USA). For phytosterol analysis, 20 ml
sample was injected onto a Luna C8 (2)
column (250 /4.6 mm i.d.; Phenomenex,
Cheshire, UK). Detection was by a Waters
995 photodiode array detector. The mobile
phase was 80% acetonitrile and 20% water at
a flow rate of 1.6 ml/min. Column tempera-
ture was maintained at 508C. The HPLC
system used for tocopherol and squalene
analysis was the same, except the column
used was a Supelcosil LC-18-DB (250 /4.6
mm i.d.; Supelco, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania,
USA), The mobile phase was 99% methanol
and 1% water at a flow rate of 1.2 ml/min.
Column temperature was maintained at
258C. Peak areas were recorded using
Millennium 32 Chromatography Manager
software (Waters Corporation, Milford,
Massachusetts, USA). For phytosterol, toco-
pherol and squalene analysis, chromato-
grams were extracted at 205 nm, 292 nm
and 215 nm, respectively.
Preparation of fatty acid methyl esters
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) were pre-
pared from extracted oil by the method of
Slover & Lanza (1979). Briefly, approxi-
mately 200 mg extracted oil was treated
with 1 ml methanolic NaOH at 1008C for
15 min in ground glass stoppered tubes. The
tubes were cooled on ice, 2 ml boron
trifloride was added and the tubes were
boiled for a further 15 min. The tubes were
cooled on ice, then 1 ml iso-octane and 2 ml
saturated sodium chloride were added, sha-
ken vigorously and left to stand to allow the
layers to separate. The upper hexane layer
containing the FAME was transferred to a
small tube and stored at /208C for later
analysis by capillary-column gas
/liquid
chromatography (GC).
 174 L. S. Maguire et al.
FAME analysis by GC
For FAME analysis, a DB-WAX capillary
column (30 m/0.32 mm i.d.; J & W Scientific,
Folsom, California, USA) was used. The
column was connected to a Shimadzu GC-
14A (Kyoto, Japan) gas chromatograph
equipped with a flame-ionization detector.
Nitrogen was used as the carrier gas. The
temperature programme was as follows. In-
itial temperature 508C; increase to 2008C at
108C/min, hold for 25 min; and increase to
2308C at 108C/min, hold for 20 min. Injector
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and detector temperatures were 2508C. Chro-
matograms were recorded using Millennium
32 Chromatography Manager software
(Waters Corporation, Milford, Massachu-
setts, USA).
Results
The total oil content of the five selected nuts
ranged from 37.9 to 59.2%, with the maca-
For personal use only.
damia nut yielding the greatest percentage of
oil, and the peanut the least (Table 1). The
peroxide values ranged from 0.19 to 0.43 meq
O2/kg oil (Table 1).
The fatty acid profile of the five nuts
determined by capillary-column GC is pre-
sented in Table 2 and a summary of the
important fatty acid parameters is presented
in Table 3. The major MUFA present in all
five nuts was oleic acid (C18:1), with sub-
stantial levels of palmitoleic acid (C16:1)
present in the macadamia nut (Table 2).
The major polyunsaturated fatty acid
(PUFA) present was linoleic acid (C18:2),
with lesser amounts of linolenic acid (C18:3).
Walnut had a particularly high content of
Table 1. Total oil content and peroxide value of oil extracted
from five edible nuts
Total oil Peroxide value
Oil sample (g/100 g) (meq O2/kg oil)
Hazelnut 49.29/1.6 0.439/0.04
Macadamia 59.29/1.5 0.369/0.03
Peanut 37.99/1.8 0.399/0.04
Walnut 50.89/1.4 0.379/0.07
Almond 40.89/2.5 0.199/0.004
Results are the mean value9/standard error of the mean
from three independent experiments.
linolenic acid (11.6% of total) compared with
the other nuts (Table 2). The main saturated
fatty acids (STA) present in all samples were
palmitic acid (C16) and stearic acid (C18)
(Table 2). The levels of total UFA in all five
nuts were similar, ranging from 84.5 to
91.6%. However, there were larger variations
between the PUFA and MUFA contents
(Table 3). The mean MUFA and PUFA
contents of the macadamia nut oil were
82.4 g/100 g and 2.4 g/100 g, respectively.
This is in contrast to walnut oil, which
contained 21.2 g/100 g MUFA and 69.0 g/
100 g PUFA. Peanut contained the lowest
levels of MUFA at 38.6 g/100 g (Table 3).
The tocopherol and squalene contents of
the five nuts were also measured (Table 4).
The levels of total tocopherols ranged from
122.3 to 452 mg/g and the order of decreasing
total tocopherol content was almond
/
hazenut
/walnut
/peanut
/macadamia nut.
a-Tocopherol was the most prevalent toco-
pherol for all nuts except walnut, ranging
from 21 to 440 mg/g, and was present in much
higher concentrations in almonds and hazel-
nuts than peanuts and the macadamia nut.
The level of a-tocopherol detected in walnuts
was particularly low at 20.6 mg/g. g-Toco-
pherol was measured in concentrations ran-
ging from trace amounts in the macadamia
nut to 300.5 mg/g in walnuts, while d-toco-
pherol was present in trace amounts in all nut
samples (data not shown). Squalene was
detected in all five nuts, with levels ranging
from 9.4 to 186.4 mg/g (Table 4).
The levels of total phytosterols ranged
from 1096 to 2178.4 mg/g oil and the order
of decreasing total phytosterol content
was almond
/peanut
/macadamia nut
/
walnut
/hazelnut. b-Sitosterol was the most
abundant sterol, ranging from 991.2 to
2071.7 mg/g, and was present in much higher
concentrations than campesterol and stig-
masterol in all five nuts. Campesterol and
stigmasterol were present at similar concen-
trations (Table 5). The concentrations of
campesterol and stigmasterol were higher in
peanuts, at 198.3 and 163.3 mg/g, respectively,
than in the remaining four nuts, the concen-
trations of which ranged from 51.0 to 73.3
mg/g (campesterol) and 38.1 to 55.5 mg/g
(stigmasterol).
 Fatty acid, tocopherol, squalene and phytosterol in nuts 175

Table 2. Fatty acid composition (% of total) of oil extracted from five edible nuts

Fatty acid

Oil sample 14:0 16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 20:3 20:5 22:0 22:6

Hazelnut 0.13 5.82 0.29 2.74 79.30 10.39 0.46 0.16 ND ND ND ND

Macadamia 0.95 8.37 17.28 3.17 65.15 2.31 0.06 2.28 0.01 ND 0.2 0.27
Peanut 0.03 11.08 0.15 2.66 38.41 44.6 0.58 1.57 0.02 0.02 0.1 0.75
Walnut 0.13 6.70 0.23 2.27 21.00 57.46 11.58 0.08 ND 0.06 0.07 ND
Almond 0.06 6.85 0.63 1.29 69.24 21.52 0.16 0.16 ND ND 0.05 ND

Results are the mean value from three independent experiments. ND, not detected.

Table 3. Summary of the important fatty acid parameters of oil extracted from five edible nuts
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Polyunsaturated fatty Monounsaturated fatty Total saturated fatty Total unsaturated fatty Ratio unsaturated/
Oil sample acids (g/100 g) acids (g/100 g) acids (g/100 g) acids (g/100 g) saturated

Hazelnut 10.9 79.6 9.2 90.4 9.9

Macadamia 2.4 82.4 15.1 84.8 5.6
Peanut 46.0 38.6 15.5 84.5 5.45
Walnut 69.0 21.2 9.5 90.3 9.5
Almond 21.7 69.9 8.5 91.6 10.8

Results are the mean value from three independent experiments.

Discussion 59%. Analysis of the fatty acid profile of the

For personal use only.

nuts indicates a high unsaturated/saturated

Kris-Etherton et al . (2001) reviewed epide-
miological and clinical studies that have
demonstrated the effects of nuts on cardio-
vascular health and concluded that, overall,
the results suggest an independent beneficial
effect of nut consumption on CHD risk. The
exact mechanism by which nuts exert this
protective effect is not clear. In addition to
their highly unsaturated fatty acid profile,
nuts contain other constituents that could
also offer protection. These constituents
include antioxidants (e.g. tocopherols), squa-
lene and plant sterols.
In agreement with previously published
studies, our data indicate that the fat content
of all five nut types was high, between 37 and
ratio. The main contributing saturated fatty
acids for all nuts included stearic acid (C18:0)
and palmitic acid (C16:0) with traces of
myristic acid (C14:0) and eicosanoic acid
(C20:0). The highest levels of saturated fatty
acid were found in the macadamia nut and
peanuts. Although classified with other nuts,
peanuts are legumes and grow underground,
often being referred to as groundnuts. Re-
sults from this study confirm that, composi-
tionally, they are similar to the tree nuts.
Higgs (2002) has reviewed the protective role
that peanuts may have against certain dis-
eases, including CHD. The main unsaturated
fatty acids in the nuts studied included oleic
acid (C18:1), linoleic acid (C18:2), linolenic

Table 4. Squalene and tocopherol content of oil (mg/g oil) Table 5. Campesterol, stigmasterol and b-sitosterol content
extracted from five edible nuts of oil (mg/g oil) extracted from five edible nuts

Oil sample Squalene a-Tocopherol g-Tocopherol Oil sample Campesterol Stigmasterol b-Sitosterol

Hazelnut 186.49/11.6 310.19/31.1 61.29/29.8 Hazelnut 66.79/6.7 38.19/4.0 991.29/73.2

Macadamia 185.09/27.2 122.39/24.5 Trace Macadamia 73.39/8.9 38.39/2.7 1506.79/140.5
Peanut 98.39/13.4 87.99/6.7 60.39/6.7 Peanut 198.39/21.4 163.39/23.8 1363.39/103.9
Walnut 9.49/1.8 20.69/8.2 300.59/31.0 Walnut 51.09/2.9 55.59/11.0 1129.59/124.6
Almond 95.09/8.5 439.59/4.8 12.59/2.1 Almond 55.09/10.8 51.79/3.6 2071.79/25.9

Results are the mean value9/standard error of the mean Results are the mean value9/standard error of the mean
from three independent experiments. from three independent experiments.
 176 L. S. Maguire et al.
acid (C18:3) and palmitoleic acid (C16:1).
Unlike hazelnuts and almond, where the
majority of the MUFA was oleic acid
(C18:1), in the macadamia nut 21% was
palmitoleic acid (C16:1). The macadamia
oil determined in this study contained the
highest level of MUFA, higher than MUFA
levels reported in olive oil, high-oleate saf-
flower oil and rapeseed oil (Leissner et al .,
1989). Peanuts had higher levels of linoleic
acid (C18:2) and a low level of oleic acid
(C18:1) in comparison with previously pub-
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lished data (Hinds, 1995). Walnuts were a
significant source of omega-3 fatty acids.
Linolenic acid (C18:3) represented approxi-
mately 12% of their total fatty acid composi-
tion. One potential mechanism proposed by
which nuts offer protection against CHD
includes a reduction in fatal ventricular
arrhythmias (Albert et al ., 2002). There
are several components of nuts that could
potentially exert such a role, including the
a-linolenic content. Walnuts, therefore, could
For personal use only.
be particularly significant in this regard.
The levels of tocopherols and squalene
differed between nut varieties. a-Tocopherol
was the main tocopherol isomer present in all
nuts analysed with the exception of walnut.
The a-tocopherol content ranged between
20.6 mg/g oil in walnuts and 439.5 mg/g oil in
almonds. In general, tocopherol levels were
in accordance with previous publications
(Savage et al ., 1997, 1999; Parcerisa et al .,
1998). However, macadamia nuts had a much
higher content of a-tocopherol (122.3 mg/g
lipid) than was previously reported by Kaij-
ser et al . (2000), who reported levels of
0.8
/1.1 mg/g lipids. The macadamia nuts
examined in the study by Kaijser et al .
(2000) were harvested from the North Island
of New Zealand. Unfortunately, the source
of the macadamia nuts used in the present
study is unknown. It has been reported that
the fatty acid profile and phytochemical
content of nuts (e.g. walnuts) varies between
cultivars (Greve et al ., 1992). Therefore, it
is possible that differences between the
a-tocopherol content of our macadamia
nuts and those of Kaijser et al . (2000) could
be explained by cultivar variations. Clearly,
this remains to be confirmed by analysing
different cultivars of the macadamia nut
for a-tocopherol content. The g-tocopherol
content of the nuts was also analysed in
this study, and ranged from trace levels in
macadamia nuts to 300.5 mg/g in walnuts.
Walnuts were the only nuts that contained
g-tocopherol in higher concentrations than
a-tocopherol. Similar findings were reported
by Savage et al . (1999) and Lavedrine et al .
(1997). Some reports suggest g-tocopherol
has a higher antioxidant capacity in model
systems than a-tocopherol (Wolf, 1997; Sald-
een et al., 1999).
There is a paucity of information regarding
the content of squalene in nuts. However,
some literature does exist on the content of
squalene in vegetable oils. Owen et al . (2000)
reported a mean squalene content of 2900
mg/g in olive oils, with seed oils having a value
of 240 mg/g. Soybean oil has been reported to
contain levels of squalene of 220 mg/g oil
(Mendes et al ., 2002). In this study the level
of squalene in the nuts varied between nut
types, ranging from 9.4 mg/g oil in walnuts to
186.4 mg/g oil in hazelnuts. The level found in
hazelnuts is comparable with soybean oil.
There has been growing interest in squalene
as a potential chemopreventative agent
(Smith, 2000). The average intake of squalene
in the United States is 30 mg/day. However,
when olive oil consumption is high the intake
of squalene can reach 200
/400 mg/day, as
observed in the Mediterranean countries
(Gerber, 1994). Experimental studies have
shown that squalene can inhibit chemically-
induced colon, lung and skin tumorigenesis
in rodents (reviewed by Smith, 2000). There-
fore, it has been proposed that the decreased
risk for various cancers associated with high
olive oil consumption may, in part, be due to
the presence of squalene. In addition, squa-
lene has been shown to behave as an
antioxidant in certain model systems as
outlined in the Introduction. Uncontrolled
production of reactive oxygen species con-
tributes to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular
disease and cancer. We demonstrate, in the
present study, that nuts can also be a
significant source of dietary squalene.
For all five nuts analysed, b-sitosterol was
the most predominant sterol present ranging
between 991 and 2071 mg/g. Little difference
between contents of campesterol and stig-
 Fatty acid, tocopherol, squalene and phytosterol in nuts
masterol was evident. Weihrauch & Gardner
(1978) reported that walnuts had a campes-
terol content of 60 mg/g, but only contained
trace levels of stigmasterol. In this study
walnuts had a campesterol content of
51 mg/g but the stigmasterol levels measured
55 mg/g. Levels of stigmasterol present in
hazelnuts and macadamia nuts are in line
with previously reports (Savage et al ., 1997;
Parcerisa et al ., 1998, 2000; Kaijser et al .,
2000). In comparison with the other nuts
analysed, peanuts had a significantly higher
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campesterol and stigmasterol content.
Peroxide values have been used to assess
rancidity in nuts (Fourie & Basson, 1989). In
this study the peroxide value ranged between
0.19 meq O2/kg oil for almond and 0.43 meq
O2/kg for hazelnuts. These levels indicate that
the nuts were of good quality from the
perspective of oxidative stability. Savage
et al . (1999) observed a positive relationship
between the peroxide value and total toco-
pherol content. On analysis of our results,
For personal use only.
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almond had the lowest peroxide value and
had the highest content of tocopherols;
however, this trend is not seen with the other
nuts types. No correlation was observed
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In conclusion, this study illustrates some
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contents between different nut types. In
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