Language

 Verbal form of thoughts

 vehicle/tool of communication
 comes from inherent ability
General features
1. Spoken Language- use of sound patterns
Sound pattern- correct way of pronouncing the word.
2. Written Language- use of visual pattern
Visual Pattern- how you write the word correctly/accepted way of writing a word or pattern
General Characteristics
1. Symbol- name, phrase, signify something
2. Referent- symbolize or devoted by particular symbol
3. Reference- meaning/ signification existing between the symbol and referent
4. Subjects- Individual/person who uses the symbols for whom.
Science of Language
1. Pragmatics- linguistics science deals with origin derivation of word.
* saan galling yung word
2. Semantics- treats of formal relation between symbols and words
*science of meaning
3. Syntactic- formal relation between the symbol/grammar
Functions of Language
1. Informative Function- Root word “to inform” use to convey or tell information usually use the form of
Declarative form
2. Practical Function- order, appeal, request, command, dynamic function of language usually takes the form
of Imperative Form
3. Expressive Function- Emotions/ expression of something beautiful. ex. Angry, sad, happy, afraid, in love.
4. Performative Function- language use to not only tell or report about something but with actions.
5. Ceremonial Function- Language use to enhance social intercourse relationship and amenities
6. Logical Function-
7. Complex Function- combination of all function of language
LOGIC PROPER TASK IS CORRECT REASONING
Key concept- correct reasoning
Example:
Conclusion is true
Reasoning
All Visayans are Filipinos
All Cebuanos are Visayans
Therefore, All Cebuanos are Filipinos
Facts- Actually exist or happens
Example:
Conclusion is false
Reasoning
All Visayans are illocanos
All tagalogs are visayans
Therefore, All tagalogs are illocanos
Falsity- non-correspondence of proposition
Example;
Not possess the consequal relationship
All dogs have tails
All cats have tails
Therefore, all cats are dog
Premises- not just define
Example of proposition
Jose loves Josefa
Josefa love Jose
Reasoning is invalid
*kasi pwedeng hindi mahal ni Josefa si Jose pero mahal ni Jose si Josefa
Phantasm- product of fantasy
Idea- mental image of an object. Intellectual image of a thing. Apprehension concrete, particular, individual
Percept- Abstract or universal
Term- word, phrase, or a name by which the idea is express. Verbal expressive
CONNOTATION-DENOTATION
Connotation- suggest a meaning by a word/ significance of something/ essential properties of a thing/ essential
thoughts of element, which constitute a term.
Example:
Mother
 connotes to a woman with a child of her own
 denotes to Mrs. Andres

Classification of Terms
As regards quantity
A. Singular term- a term is singular if it stands for a single definite individual or group
Signs of singularity
Proper nouns- are definite names of person, places, objects of things.
Nouns modified by adjectives in the superlative degree – suffixes ends with (est)
ex: first, worst, tallest, biggest
Demonstrative- this – that
The article “the”
ex; The lady is red
Personal pronouns - I, you, He, she, They, we, own, your
B. Particular Term- a term is particular of it stands for an indefinite of the absolute extension.
Signs of Particularity
Indefinite pronouns
ex: some, few, several, many, most
Use of numbers
ex: seven tickets
Articles “a” and “an”
ex: a cup of tea / an apple
General proposition- there are proposition, which are true most of the time but not all the times ex: woman
gossips
C. Universal terms- Terms are universal if it is stand for every subjects signified.
Signs of Universality
Universal expression
ex:all, every, each, everybody, everything. whatever, whoever,
Universal idea
ex: Men are mortal
Articles “the”, “a” or “an” if the idea is universal
ex: the snake is a dangerous creature
Collective term - refers to a group or collection of objects, individual regarded as a uni.
Example
Army, family, squad, flocks

As regards incompatibility
A. Contradictory - those wherein one affairs what the other denies.
Example
Life - lifeless, right - not right
B. Contrary terms - those which represents the two extremes among objects of a series belongings to the same
class.
Example
Hot - cold , black - white
C. Primative terms - are those wherein one signifies a perfection and the other denies a perfection in a subject
which naturally ought to process it.
Example
Wealth - poverty
D. Relatives terms - those wherein one cannot be understood without the other.
Example
Mother - child , wife – husband

As regards definite of meaning

A. Univocal - terms are universal if they mean exactly the same thing in at base two occurences.
Example
Pope Francis is a man , pres duterte is a man , pacquiao is a man.
B. Equivocal terms - terms are equivocal if they have different meanings in at least two occurences.
Example
Dogs bark at the bark of tree.
C. Analogous terms - terms are analogous if they have partly same and party different meanings in at least two
occurences.
1. Intrinsic analogy - analogous terms are intrinsic if the concept they signify are realized in all their
analogous.
Example
Logic is the science and are of correct thinking.
2. Extrinsic analogy - analogous terms are extrinsic if the concept they signify are realized only in their
primary analogous.
Example
The mouth of the river.
The heart of the mountain.
3. Analogy of proportionality - analogous are proportional if they are similar
Example
The stepmother is cruel.
The sea is cruel.
4. Analogy of attribution - analogous terms are attributed depending on the relationship of the secondary to its
primary analogous.
Example
I am reading shakespeare
I am viewing a beautiful Picasso

As regards the nature of referents

A. Concrete term - is one whose referents is tangible, or can be perceived by the senses.
Example
Man, house, watch, dog
B. Abstract term - is one whose referent is intangible or can be understood only by the mind. It denote the
property, quality or relationship.
Example
Widtd, height, thickness, kindness, nationalsm
C. Null or empty - is one which has no actual referents but only imaging ones.
Example
Superman, fairy, dwende, tikbalang
Sign - anything that leads to the knowledge of something else district from itself.
Type
1. Natural sign - one that signifies something else by its very nature.
Example
Smoke, cry, blush, lightning, thunder
2. Conventional term - one which signifies something through the free institution of man - man made sign.
Example
Language, chair, mathematical signs, traffic signs
3. Accidental signs - maybe either a thing, place, or person that is closely associated with past experiences.
Example
A ring given by your partner
People park ( may signify an unforgettable moment ).
Supposition - the property of terms acquired from their use in the proportion
Kinds
1. Material supposition - that which uses a word for itself for its spoken or written sign but not for its real
meaning.
Example
Square has six letters
Square is the subject of the sentence
2. Formal supposition - that which uses a word for it real meaning
Example
A square is a rectangle with all four sides equal.
• logical supposition - that which uses a word in its second intention that is the way the mind think it to be.
Example
A black rimmed square clock is classy in my living room.
• real supposition - is that which uses a word in its first intention.
Example
A square is a rectangle with all four sides equal.
Definition - is the verbal expression of the meaning of a word or term
Kinds
1. Normal definition - that which gives the simple meaning of a term without going to the nature of this thing.
• simple identification
• illustration
• example - a movie house: Miramar, globe, podmon, and
Quad u,a, d
• synonyms
Example
Superior - better, haughty
Inferior - worst, lesser
Capricious - fickle, inconstant, changeable
• derivation or etymology
Example
Brackish derived from the dutch brak which means salty.
• description
Example
A flashlight is a handy object giving off battery powered light.

Judgment and Proposition

 Judgment is the mental act which affirms or denies something. The product of judgment is called
proposition.

KINDS OF PROPOSITION
There are many kinds of proposition:
 categorical or attributed proposition
 hypothetical
 existential
 non-existential
 simple and complex
Basic Elements of Categorical Proposition
The categorical or attributed proposition has a subject-predicate relationship: the subject is affirmed
Or denied by the predicate. Its basic elements therefore are:
 The subject
 The predicate
 The copula
The subject is the one spoken of the one about whom or of which something is affirmed or denied.
 The predicate is what is affirmed or denied of the subject.
The copula links the subject with the predicate.
Quality of the proposition
The copula is the qualifier of the proposition. Because of it the proposition is either affirmative
Or negative.
Ex. 1. He who is not a college graduate is ineligible.
2. some animals are non-mammals.

Quantity of the Proposition

The quantity of the proposition is equivalent to the quantity of the subject. It is singular if the subject
Stands for a single definite individual or group; it is particular if the subject designates an indefinite part of its
total extension; it is universal if the subject can apply to every portion signified by the term---every, each, all,
some, several, many etc.---play a significant role.
Ex.1. singular: Shakespeare is England’s greatest dramatist.
` 2. Particular: Some prima ballerinas are Margot Fonteyn and Natalia Makarova.
3. Universal: Love is a many splendored things.
Quantity of the Predicate
There are only three ways to remember in determining the quantity of the quantity of the predicate:
1. Find out first if the predicate is singular. It is singular if it refers to a single definite individual or group.
The proposition may be either affirmative or negative.
1. Dr. Christian Barnard is the most outstanding heart transplant surgeon.
2.If the predicate is not singular, and if the proposition is affirmative, then the predicate is particular.
2. Gabriel Marcel is a French philosopher.
3. If the predicate is not singular, and if the proposition is negative, then the predicate is universal.
3. Some men are not artists.

Symbols of the Categorical Statements

A stands for universal or singular and affirmative statements
E stands for universal or singular and negative statements
I stands for particular and affirmative statements
O stands for particular and negative statements
Universal/singular
A
1. All roses are flowers.
2. Every cloud has its silver lining.
3. Everything is in a flux.
E
1. No atheist is a believer n God.
2. He loves me not.
3. I never said he was a crook.
I
1. Some philosophers are essentialists.
2. A few heart transplant patients are still alive.
3. Pampanguenas are good cooks.
O
1. Some dogs are not black.
2. Many Americans are not rch.
3. All that shines is not gold.

HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
The hypothetical is a compound proposition which contains a proposed or tentative explanation.
Three Kinds of hypothetical proposition
A. Conditional Proposition
 A compound proposition is one in which one clause asserts something as true provided that the other
clause is true.
Ex. If strong typhoons come , then crops will be destroyed.
Other signs of conditional propositions are: If, if only, provided that, on condition that,in case
that, when,where,suppose

B. Disjunctive Proposition
 Is one which presents two or more alternatives, one of which may be true, its members are Linked by “
either or”.
KINDS:
1. Strict disjunctive= is one in which only one member is true and the other is false.
Ex. either he is an angel or a devil.
2. Broad disjunctive= a proposition where all the judgments or statements can be true together.
C. Conjunctive Proposition
 Expresses a judgment that two alternative assumptions cannot be true at the same time.
Ex. If you are in Quiapo, you are not in Pasay.
Modal Proposition
 Does not only affirm or deny the predicate of the subject but also states the manner or mode in which
the predicate is identified with or denied of the subject.
Four Modes:
1. Necessary modal proposition= is one which cannot be otherwise; it states that the predicate belongs to
the subject and must belong to it. It is linked together by the following connectives: must be, is necessarily; has
to be; cannot be not
Ex. Justice must be rendered to our fellowmen.
2. Contingent modal proposition= is one which can be otherwise; it declares that the predicate actually
belongs to the subject , but not necessarily so. It is joined together by the following
Connectives: need to be; is not necessarily; does not have to be; cannot be.
Ex. Honesty need not be difficult.
3. Possible modal proposition= expresses a possibility; a possible identity between the subject and the
predicate. The connectives are: can be; is possibly; is able to be; need not be not.
Ex. Truth can be attained by the intellect.
4. Impossible modal proposition= is one which cannot be; it expresses an impossibility; it uses the
following connectives: cannot be; is not possible; is not able to be; need not be not.
Ex. Happiness cannot be purchased.
Multiple Categorical Proposition
 the composition is obvious.
KINDS:
A. Overtly Multiple Categorical Proposition
1. Copulative proposition= is one whose several subjects or predicate are joined together by:
And, neither…nor; both…and; not only…but also.
Ex. Rizal and Bonifacio are both our national heroes.\
2. Adversative proposition= is one whose several subjects and predicates are joined by: but; even though;
even if; although; despite; in spite of; whereas; nevertheless; still; yet.
Ex. John is a good leader but a crook.
3. Relative proposition= is one which express relationship of time and place between sentences. It is
indicated by the following: before; during; after.
Ex. Drink your milk before going to bed.
4. Causal proposition= is one which two statements are combined in such a way that one is given as the
reason (cause ) for the other. It is often indicated by: for, because; in as much as; in so far as; since; for this
reason; due to the fact.
Ex. In as much as you are interested in Logic, you should study the logical principles.
5. Comparative proposition= is one in which expresses a certain degree of comparison and/or
Relationship as being either less or greater. It is often indicated by: as…as, as…so, less than,
Greater than, equal to, more than, as much as, in proportion to.
Ex. As you live, so you die.
B. Covertly Multiple Categorical Proposition
 the composition is less obvious.
Kinds:
1. Exclusive proposition= is one which expresses exclusiveness, as indicated by: alone; only; solely; none
but.
Ex. Man alone is rational.
2. Exceptive proposition= expresses exception as indicated by: except; save; with the exception
Of;
Ex. All animals except man are rational.
3. Reduplicative proposition= is one which implies the reason or cause for the connection between the
subject and the predicate as indicated by: as such; as a;
Ex. Man as such is endowed with free will.
4. Specificative proposition= implies the time element or condition of the connection between subject and
predicate as indicated by: as a good boy; as a doctor as a person.
Ex. Dr. Calaycay as a doctor treats his patients well

LOGICAL FORM OF PROPOSITIONS

The logical form of proposition follows the S –C – pattern; the subject – copula-pattern.
Pointers to remember when reducing to logical form:
1. Keep the original subject.
2. Do not use the progressive tense for your predicate.
3. Avoid redundancies.
 4. Be simple and direct with your answer.

The following illustrate the logical form:

A proposition
Ex. Mario sells newspaper.
LF Mario is a newsboy.
E proposition
Ex No crocodiles fly.
LF No crocodiles are ( flyers)
I proposition
Ex Women are fickle.
LF Most women are fickle.
Many women are fickle.
O proposition
Ex Several student radicals have not traveled to Red China.
LF Several student radicals are not travelers to Red China.

Logical Arguments and Inferences

Logical argument = is a set of proposition and conclusion.
1. Major premise = usually a principle or general fact.
2. Minor premise = particular fact
3. Conclusion = result of the premises.
Points to remember:
1. Read first with the aim of getting the point of the passage or the speech.
2. Look for the linguistic clues.
3. Seek out the expressed premises.
4. Look for implicit premises.
5. See to it that you understood all the relevant points in the conclusion.

Inference and Sequence

Inference = refers to the mental process of moving from the premises to the conclusion.
Sequence = the process in which the antecedent flows with logical necessity into the consequent.
Deduction and Induction
Deduction = an argument in which the premises flow with logical necessity into the conclusion. They
necessarily imply the conclusion.
Induction = an argument in which the premises do not flow with logical necessity into the conclusion.
Ex. Deductive Argument
Compassionate acts make this world a better place, but condoling with the bereaved is a compassionate
act ,therefore condoling with the bereaved makes this world a better place.
ex. Inductive argument
Pilar has a shrill voice, but the woman fighting with her husband in the apartment has a shrill voice, therefore
that woman must be Pilar.

Non-deductive argument
1.Explanation= attempts to clarify by giving the reasons.
Ex. He has colds because he got drenched in the sudden downpour last night.
2. Series of facts = the facts have no relation with one another whatsoever; it just happen simultaneously.
Ex. Mother is busy in the kitchen, father is downstairs using the telephone, and I am in my room correcting
papers.
3. Expression of anger/ wonder
I wonder where Mt Hibok-hibok is?
How dare you say that my town is backward.
4. Illogical conclusion = the conclusion has nothing to do with the premises
Ex. Roses are red
But violets are blue
Therefore I love you.

FORMAL AND MATERIAL SEQUENCE

Formal sequence comes from the form of the arguments. This means that the rules are followed.
The argument is sound or correct or valid.
Ex. Every tiger is a ferocious animal.
Therefore every tiger is non-ferocious animal.
Material sequence comes from the thought content. If the idea is true, then there is material sequence.
VALIDITY OR ANTECEDENT – CONSEQUENT RELATIONSHIP
1. If the antecedent is true and the sequence valid, the consequent is true but not vice versa.
2. If the consequent is false and the sequence valid, the antecedent is false but not vice vers

RULES
A S C C S A
1. T V T F V F
2. T I ? F I ?
3. F V ? T V ?
4. F I ? T I ?

To illustrate the table:

1. Valid Every horse is an animal.
But the grand derby winner is a horse
Therefore, the grand derby winner is an animal.

2. Invalid Every horse is an animal

But no carabao is a horse
Therefore, No carabao is an animal.

3. Every horse is an animal. ( T)

But every cow is a horse. ( F)
Therefore Every cow is an animal. (?=F)
Here the conclusion is true only by accident.

4. Every horse is a cow.

But no horse is a dog.
Therefore No dog is a cow.
The sequence is invalid and the conclusion is true only by accident.

 In a deductive argument, if the premises are true the conclusion must be true.
 In an inductive argument, if the premises are true the conclusion may be false.
 If the argument has only one premise, the combination will be: