Thermistor

Working, Symbol, Types & Applications

If we are looking for a temperature sensor that is cost effective and accurate,
our first choice may be a Thermistor. It is a type of resistor whose resistance
changes with change in temperature.

What is a Thermistor?

Coined from the words “thermally controlled resistor”, thermistor is a temperature

controlled resistor.
• The resistance offered by this solid state temperature controlled device
depends on the ambient temperature.
• The temperature coefficient of thermistor is considerably high, thus their
resistance change with respect to change in temperature.

(All resistors do have a temperature dependency that is given by their

temperature coefficients. For most of the resistors (fixed and variable), this
temperature coefficient is kept very low, such that the change in
temperature does not significantly affect their resistance.)

• Since in a thermistor, physical changes (change in its temperature) tend to

change its electrical properties (like resistance), it can be also referred to as
transducer.

• A thermistor is mostly made from sensitive semiconductor based metal

oxides with metallised or sintered connecting leads onto a ceramic disc or
bead.

• Thus we can define a thermistor as:

“A two terminal solid state thermally sensitive transducer, that allows a

significant change in its resistive value with respect to change in ambient
temperature.”
 Some practical Thermistors are shown in figure:

What are the types of Thermistors?

Temperature dependence of a resistor is defined by its temperature coefficient.
According to this, the thermistors are classified into two categories based on the
type of temperature coefficient.
There are two types of temperature coefficient namely negative temperature
coefficient and positive temperature coefficient. The ceramic semiconductor
material used for each type of thermistors differs, as the temperature coefficient is
dependent on the material used.

NTC Thermistor:
• Definition – NTC or negative temperature coefficient thermistors is a device
whose resistance decreases with increase in temperature. These types of resistor
usually exhibit a large, precise and predictable decrease in resistance with
increase in temperature.

• Material Used for Construction – Unlike other resistors (fixed or variable),

these are made of ceramics and polymers, which composed of metal oxides that
 are dried and sintered to obtain a desired form factor. In case of NTC
thermistors, cobalt, nickel, iron and copper oxides are preferred.

• NTC Thermistor Symbol – The symbol for NTC thermistors is given as:

NTC THERMISTOR SYMBOL - IEC STANDARD

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is the world's leading

organization that prepares and publishes International Standards for all
electrical, electronic and related technologies.

• Characteristic Curve – A typical NTC thermistors gives most precise

readings in the temperature range of -55oC to 200oC. However some specially
designed NTC thermistors are used at absolute zero temperature (-273.15oC) and
some can be used above 150oC.

The figure below shows the characteristic curve of a NTC thermistors:

From the figure we can say that they have a steep resistance temperature curve,
denoting good temperature sensitivity.

However due to the nonlinear relationship between resistance and temperature,

some approximations are utilized to design practical system.
 Out of all the approximations, the simplest one is:
𝛥R = k𝛥T,

Where, k is the negative temperature coefficient of the Thermistor.

• Heat dissipation:
Like any resistor, Thermistor also dissipates heat whenever a significant amount of
current flows through it. This heat is dissipated in the core of the Thermistor;
therefore it can tamper the precision of the device.

• Heat capacity:
The heat required to increase the temperature by 1oC in a NTC Thermistor, is
called its heat capacity. It defines the response speed of NTC Thermistor and hence
its knowledge is needed to decide where it has to be used.

PTC Thermistor

• Definition – PTC or Positive temperature coefficient Thermistors are those

resistors whose resistance increases with increase in ambient temperature.

• Types of PTC Thermistors – PTC Thermistors are grouped according to

their structure, materials used and their manufacturing process.

1) Silistors, are PTC thermistors that belong to the first group

(according to material used and structure). They use silicon as the
semiconductor and have linear characteristic.

2) Switching type PTC thermistors belong to the second category

(according to the manufacturing process). This Thermistor has a
non linear characteristic curve.

As the switching type PTC Thermistor gets heated, initially the

resistance starts to decrease, up to a certain critical temperature, after
which as the heat is increased, the resistance increases dramatically.
• PTC Thermistor Symbol – The following figure shows the symbol used for
PTC Thermistors in a circuit diagram.

• Characteristic Curve – The following figure shows the characteristic

curve of a Silistor and a switching type PTC thermistor.

*We see that, a silistor PTC has a linear characteristic. This means that this PTC Thermistor is quite
sensitive to the change in temperature. Its resistance increases linearly with increase in temperature.

*The switching type PTC however, is different. Due to its poly-crystalline ceramic body, has a nonlinear
characteristic curve. We see from the figure that upto a certain temperature, lets call it a threshold
temperature, the resistance decreases with increase in temperature much like a NTC Thermistor. As the
temperature increases beyond the threshold temperature, the resistance starts to increase dramatically with
increase in temperature.
 • Rated resistance of Thermistor – The resistance of PTC Thermistor is rated
at a temperature of 25oC. It means that if you find a PTC Thermistor, that has
a rating say 200Ω, it implies that this is the value of resistance at 25oC.

Now that we have discussed about the types of Thermistors according to the type
of temperature coefficient, there is another classification based on the shape and
size of the Thermistors.

Classification Based on the Type of Size and Shape of the Thermistors

Thermistor, whether it is an NTC or PTC Thermistor, has a body made of metallic

oxide. The metallic oxide body of a Thermistor can be pressed into different
shapes and sizes.

They can be either pressed into a bead, disk or cylindrical shape.

Therefore, the ones pressed into bead are known as bead Thermistors, those
pressed into disk are known as disk Thermistors and similarly, the third class is the
cylindrical Thermistors. Bead Thermistors are the smallest in size of the lot.

The following figure shows one of each type:

Thermistor Working
The Thermistor works on a simple principle: Change in temperature of the
Thermistor, leads to a change in its resistance.

How does its temperature change?

1. The Thermistor’s temperature can change either due to external factors or
due to internal factors.

2. The most important internal factor is the current flowing through the device.
As the current through it increases, it starts self heating its elements. This
causes a rise in temperature of the Thermistor.

3. Depending on the type of Thermistor( whether NTC or PTC), its resistance

changes with respect to this change in temperature.

4. Externally the Thermistor temperature can be changed by changing the

ambient temperature.

5. The resistance and temperature relationship can be approximated by the

following equation:

𝟏 𝟏
R=RO eβ( ) − …………(1)
𝐓 𝐓̥

(Resistance – Temperature Relation Equation of Thermistor)

Where, R = Resistance of Thermistor at the temperature T (in K), R0 = Resistance

at given temperature T0 (in K), β = Material specific-constant

In terms of temperature coefficient of resistance this equation can be defined as:

R = Ro [1+α(T-To)] ………….(2)
Uses and Applications of Thermistors

In this section we shall give you a brief about the common uses of each type of
Thermistor. Each Thermistor that is NTC and PTC Thermistor are used in different
applications according to the need.

NTC Thermistor Applications

• NTC Temperature Sensor –

I. The most common use of a Thermistor is that to measure the ambient
temperature.
II. NTC Thermistor, being highly sensitive to temperature is considered
ideal for this application.
III. They are cheap and mostly used for temperature range -40oC to +300o
IV. Apart from the temperature range other criteria that are taken into
account while choosing a Thermistor for this application include:
Resistance range, accuracy, surrounding medium, response time and
dimensional requirements.

A very basic circuit that uses Thermistor for temperature measurement is

shown below. It is nothing but a Wheatstone bridge. Initially, all the 4
resistors (one of them being Thermistor) are balanced, that is there won’t be
any current through the ammeter. A change in temperature will obviously
change the resistance of the Thermistor and hence a current will flow through
the ammeter.

WheatstoneBridge-Thermistor Application
 • Temperature Compensation – Even though all the semiconductors posses a
temperature coefficient, NTC has a high sensitivity towards temperature.
Hence, NTC is opted for compensating undesired response to temperature
changes in a circuit. The compensation network mostly comprises of resistors
in series (or shunt) and a voltage divider circuit. Below figure shows a
compensation network using a Thermistor.

• As a Fire alarm – NTC Thermistors can be used to build simple fire alarms.
A basic circuit is shown in the figure below.

In this circuit, the Thermistor resistance controls the voltage across the
resistor triggering the transistor switch. As the Thermistor senses an increase in
temperature, its resistance decreases, that in turn increases the voltage across the
resistor that triggers the transistor switch.
These were some of the basic circuits that use Thermistors. These circuits are
developed into advanced circuits to be used in various practical applications. Some
of the practical applications include:

• Temperature controllers in mobile phone, refrigerators hair dryers etc

• Temperature measuring device to monitor temperature of exhaust gas,
cylinder head etc.
• To monitor temperature to maintain the room temperature at certain desired
level.
• As a temperature stabilizer in laser diodes and photo elements.

PTC Thermistor Applications

PTC Thermistors can be actually broadly classified into two categories based on
their applications.

a) Power PTC Thermistors:

• Power PTC Thermistors as fuse – For circuits that require over current
protection, power PTC Thermistors act as a fuse. Ceramic PTC Thermistors
are a replacement to conventional fuses to protect loads such as motors,
transformers etc.
Figure below shows a simple circuit using a PTC Thermistor as a fuse connected in
series with load.

• These PTC Thermistors are used a switch in motor starting circuits,

Degaussing circuits etc.
• Due to their Resistance and temperature characteristic, PTC Thermistors are a
good choice for Small heaters and thermostats.
b) PTC Thermistor Sensors
• A PTC Thermistor sensor is used in various applications. As a level sensor,
they are a good choice to detect and control overflow in oil tankers.
• Another type of sensor, that is made using the PTC Thermistor, is the
temperature sensor. Here when these PTC are used, only their steep region
of R/T characteristic is considered. Also, the resistance is regarded as a
function of ambient temperature given that varistor (a semiconductor
diode with resistance dependent on the applied voltage) effect is
excluded. These sensors come in handy at places where temperature limit is
needed for protection purposes.

Figure below shows a basic circuit diagram for the protection of power
semiconductors by a PTC Thermistor limit temperature sensor.

These Thermistors are basically not used at high temperatures.

** For applications where Thermistors need to be exposed to high

temperatures, a different kind of Thermistors is used.
A Note on High temperature Thermistors:

High temperature Thermistors are build differently than the normal

Thermistors, as they have to handle high temperatures upto 200oC- 250oC.
Here we discuss about omega 5500 series Thermistors. These glass
encapsulated Thermistors have a maximum continuous temperature rating of
-80oC to 200oC and for intermittent operation the maximum rating 250oC. It
is a bead type Thermistor having solder able gold plated dumet leads.
Figure below shows an omega 5500series Thermistor.
 These Thermistors are NTC type and they have a resistance rating( that is resistance at 25 oC) of
2252Ω, 3000Ω, 5000Ωand 10000Ω.
Unlike other Thermistors, these high temperature thermistors are chemically quite stable and are
not much affected by aging.

Comparison between NTC and PTC Thermistors

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Positive temperature Coefficient (PTC)

Thermistors Thermistors

They have a negative temperature coefficient, They have positive temperature coefficient, meaning
meaning their resistance increases with decrease in their resistance increases with increase in
temperature. temperature.

The metal oxides used for their construction are: The metal oxides used for their construction are:
cobalt, nickel, iron, manganese, titanium. barium-, lead-, strontium titanate.

These Thermistors posses highly non-linear R/T The silitor PTC Thermistor has a linear R/T curve,
relationship. hence its resistance very much sensitive to
temperature.

These are mostly used in temperature compensating PTC Thermistors are a good choice for temperature
circuits, temperature measuring instruments and measurement and control, temperature detection and
controllers. regulation. Also, they are can be used as a switch and
are called thermal switch.
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 Thermocouple

THERMOCOUPLE

Introduction: The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device. It is used for measuring the
temperature at one particular point. In other words, it is a type of sensor used for measuring the
temperature in the form of an electric current or the EMF.

Definition: The thermocouple consists of two wires of different metals which are welded
together at the ends. The welded portion creates the junction where the temperature is
measured. The variation in temperature of the wire induces the voltages.

Working Principle of Thermocouple

The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three effects.

1) Seebeck Effect – The Seebeck effect occurs between two different metals. When the heat
is provided to any one of the metal, the electrons start flowing from hot metal to cold
metal. Thus, direct current induces in the circuit.

In short, it is a phenomenon in which the temperature difference between the two different
metals induces the potential differences between them. The Seebeck effect produces small
voltages for per Kelvin of temperature.

2) Peltier Effect – The Peltier effect is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. The Peltier effect
state that thetemperature difference can be created between any two different conductors
by applying the potential difference between them.
 3) Thompson Effect – The Thompson effect state that when two dissimilar metals join
together and if they create two junctions then the voltage induces in the entire length of
the conductor because of the temperature gradient.

(The temperature gradient is a physical term which shows the direction and rate of
change of temperature at a particular location.)

Construction of Thermocouple

The thermocouple consists two dissimilar metals. These metals are welded together at the
junction point. This junction considers as the measuring point. The junction point categorizes
into three types.

1. Ungrounded Junction – In ungrounded junction, the conductors are entirely isolated from
the protective sheath. It is used for high-pressure application works. The major advantage of
using such type of junction is that it reduces the effect of the stray magnetic field.
2. Grounded Junction – In such type of junction the metals and protective sheath are welded
together. The grounded junction use for measuring the temperature in the corrosive
environment. This junction provides resistance to the noise.
3. Exposed Junction – Such type of junction is used in the places where fast response requires.
The exposed junction is used for measuring the temperature of the gas.

(The material used for making the thermocouple depends on the measuring range of
temperature.)
Working of Thermocouple

The circuit of the thermocouple is shown in the figure below. The circuit consists two dissimilar
metals. These metals are joined together in such a manner that they are creating two junctions.
The metals are bounded to the junction through welding.

OR

Principle of measurement of temperature by a thermocouple

 Let the P and Q are the two junctions of the thermocouples. The T 1 and T2 are the
temperatures at the junctions. As the temperature of the junctions is different from each
other, the EMF generates in the circuit.

 If the temperature at the junction becomes equal, the equal and opposite EMF generates
in the circuit, and the zero current flows through it.

 If the temperatures of the junction become unequal, the potential difference induces in the
circuit. The magnitude of the EMF induces in the circuit depends on the types of material
 used for making the thermocouple. The total current flowing through the circuit is
measured through the measuring devices.

The EMF induces in the thermocouple circuit is given by the equati

Where Δθ – temperature difference between the hot thermocouple junction and the reference,

b – constants

Measurement of Thermocouple Output

The output EMF obtained from the thermocouples can be measured through the following
methods.

1. Multimeter – It is a simpler method of measuring the output EMF of the thermocouple. The
multimeter is connected to the cold junctions of the thermocouple. The deflection of the
multimeter pointer is equal to the current flowing through the meter.
2. Potentiometer – The output of the thermocouple can also be measured with the help of the DC
potentiometer.
3. Amplifier with Output Devices – The output obtained from the thermocouples is amplified
through an amplifier and then feed to the recording or indicating instrument.

Materials for thermocouple:

1. Melting point of thermocouple materials must be higher than the measuring temperature.
2. The dissimilar materials on joining should be able to produce large emf for accuracy of
measurements.
3. Temperature is determined indirectly i.e. through calibrations of emf with temperature. As
for as possible, the linear variation of emf with temperature is desired.
4. Thermocouple materials should be resistant to atmospheres in furnaces.
 Selection of thermocouples

1. Type of furnace; whether batch or continuous and the frequency of measurement.

2. Furnace atmosphere: The furnace atmosphere may be oxidizing or reducing.
Accordingly thermocouples are selected. For example Pt, Pt‐Rh can be used in oxidizing and inert
atmospheres up to 14800C. Chromel ‐alumel thermocouples may be used in reducing atmosphere
but at low temperatures.
If that atmosphere is very short of oxygen, it may pull oxygen from the
material being heated. Such an atmosphere is termed “reducing”. Gas heating
usually results in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere. If the atmosphere is
oxygen-rich, the material being heated will capture a proportion, forming an
oxide layer. Such an atmosphere is termed “oxidizing.
3. Response of thermocouple to temperature difference is important. Normally
thermocouples re inserted in a ceramic sheath. During temperature measurement, the hot junction
of the thermocouple is heated by the transfer of heat from sheath. Also large diameter of wire
requires sufficient time for heating.
 Advantages of Thermocouple

1. The thermocouple is cheaper than the other temperature measuring devices.

2. The thermocouple has the fast response time.
3. It has a wide temperature range.

Disadvantages of the Thermocouples

1. The thermocouple has low accuracy.

2. The recalibration of the thermocouple is difficult.

Nickel-alloy, platinum/rhodium alloy, Tungsten/rhenium-alloy, chromel-gold, iron-alloy

are the name of the alloys used for making the thermocouple.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:

Cold junction compensation : Application of seeback effect to thermocouple requires that one end of the
junction (cold) must be at constant temperature. The standard calibration data for all thermocouples are
based on 00C cold junction temperature. In practice it may not be possible to keep cold junction at zero
degree temperature. Hence standard data need to be corrected. One way is to add the environmental
temperature to the value of temperature determined by thermocouple measurement.

In another method, thermistors may be put in the thermo‐couple circuit. The voltage drop across
thermistors depends on environmental temperature which then compensates for the error.

Compensating wires

Compensating wires are those wires which are connected from the thermocouple to the temperature
indicator. Compensating wires should have same emf as that of thermocouples. Compensating wires are
color coded.

Compensating wires are color coded.

The negative wires in all thermocouples are red.

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 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

What is Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

What is an RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)?

A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or RTD) is
an electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an
electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor. If we want to measure
temperature with high accuracy, an RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics
over a wide range of temperatures
.

Fig. 1 – Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The elements used in Resistance Temperature Detectors are specified into their resistance in
ohms at zero degrees Celsius (C). The RTD specification that is most commonly used is 100
ohms. This means that a Resistance Temperature Detector element should have a resistance of
100 Ohms at 0° Celsius.

The most common metal which is used as Resistance Temperature Detector element is Platinum.
Platinum is a noble metal and has stable resistance-temperature relationship over a large
temperature range. In addition to Platinum, Nickel, Copper and Balco is also used as RTD
element.

Platinum is the most common choice because of following properties:

 Its inertness to foreign chemicals.

( Platinum is a chemical element with the symbol Pt and atomic number 78. It is a dense, malleable, ductile, highly
unreactive, precious, silverish-white transition metal.)
  Its linear resistance change with temperature.

 Its high Temperature coefficient of resistance. This avoids any sudden spike in resistance
with respect to applied temperature.

(The temperature coefficient of resistance is generally defined as the change in electrical resistance of a substance with
respect to per degree change in temperature. )

 Its stability.

Working Principle of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) functions on the resistance and temperature
relationship in metals. It works on the principle of measurement which states that “The resistance
of a material changes with temperature”.

The resistance of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) changes constantly with respect to the
applied temperature and so the temperature is quite predictable by measurement of its resistance.
It is this property which allows Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) to measure temperature
more accurately and consistently. RTD’s resistance and the temperature can be determined by
applying a constant current and evaluating the occurrence of voltage drop through the resistor.

RTD

Fig. – Resistance Temperature Detector Module and Devices

Thin film elements are commonly used today, although ceramic wire wound elements still have
their place. Ceramic wire wound RTDs are used when the temperature measured is higher or if
there is vibration in the application.

Resistance – Temperature Reltionship

The variation of resistance of metals with temperature is normally modeled in the form:

Rt=R0 [1+ɑ(t-to)+β(t-to)+.........................]

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at toC and t0oC temperatures. α and β are the constants depends
on the metals.
This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small range of temperature, the expression can be,

Rt=R0[1+ɑ(t-to)]

Resistance-Temperature Characteristics:

In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. These three metals are having
different resistance variations with respective to the temperature variations. That is called resistance-
temperature characteristics.

Platinum has the temperature range of 650oC, and then the Copper and Nickel have 120oC and 300oC
respectively. The figure shows the resistance-temperature characteristics curve of the three different
metals. For Platinum, its resistance changes by approximately 0.4 ohms per degree Celsius of
temperature.

The purity of the platinum is checked by measuring R 100 / R0. Because, whatever the materials actually we
are using for making the RTD that should be pure. If it will not pure, it will deviate from the conventional
resistance-temperature graph. So, α and β values will change depending upon the metals.
Construction of Resistance Temperature Detector

The construction is typically such that the wire is wound on a form (in a coil) on notched mica
cross frame to achieve small size, improving the thermal conductivity to decrease the response
time and a high rate of heat transfer is obtained. In the industrial RTD’s, the coil is protected by a
stainless steel sheath or a protective tube.

So that, the physical strain is negligible as the wire expands and increase the length of wire with
the temperature change. If the strain on the wire is increasing, then the tension increases. Due to
that, the resistance of the wire will change which is undesirable. So, we don’t want to change the
resistance of wire by any other unwanted changes except the temperature changes.

This is also useful to RTD maintenance while the plant is in operation. Mica is placed in between
the steel sheath and resistance wire for better electrical insulation. Due less strain in resistance
wire, it should be carefully wound over mica sheet. The fig. shows the structural view of an
Industrial Resistance Temperature Detector.

Fig. shows the structural view of an Industrial Resistance Temperature Detector

Signal Conditioning of RTD

We can get this RTD in market. But we must know the procedure how to use it and how to make the
signal conditioning circuitry. So that, the lead wire errors and other calibration errors can be minimized.
In this RTD, the change in resistance value is very small with respect to the temperature. So, the RTD
value is measured by using a bridge circuit. By supplying the constant electric current to the bridge circuit
and measuring the resulting voltage drop across the resistor, the RTD resistance can be calculated.
Thereby, the temperature can be also determined. This temperature is determined by converting the RTD
resistance value using a calibration expression. The different modules of RTD are given below.
Wire Configurations in Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are available in following configurations:

 Two Wire Configuration

 Three Wire Configuration

 Four Wire Configuration

Two Wire Configuration

It is the simplest one and has the chances of errors. In this configuration, RTD is connected to a
Wheatstone bridge circuit using two wires. The voltage output is monitored to get the desired
output.

Fig. – Two Wire Configuration of Resistance Temperature Detector

The biggest disadvantage of two wire configuration is that the RTD’s resistance is the direct
summation of the two connected wire’s resistance and so an error is most likely to occur.

Three Wire Configuration

In Three Wire Configuration, the wires “RL1” & “RL3″(as shown in figure below) should be
nearly of same length. The lengths of the wire are to be carefully kept equal (approximately) as
they are the most important part of the configuration.

It is done so that the impedances of wires RL1 and RL3 in the formed Wheatstone bridge should
cancel each other, each acting as an opposite leg of the bridge,. This will leave Wire “RL2” to
act as the sensing lead carrying a very small current.
 Fig. – Three Wire Configuration of Resistance Temperature Detector

Four Wire Configuration

Four wire Resistance Temperature Detectors are even more accurate than. Three wire RTDs as
they are able to completely compensate for the resistance of the wires without having to pay
attention to the length of each of the wires. This provides significantly increased accuracy at low
cost of increased copper extension wire.

Fig. – Four Wire Configuration of Resistance Temperature Detector

Components of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The components of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) are:

 Resistance Element
 Outside Diameter
 Tubing Material
 Process Connection
 Wire Configuration
 Cold End Termination

Resistance Element
Resistance Element is the main temperature sensing portion of the Resistance Temperature
Detector. The Element’s length ranges from 1/8″ to 3″. The standard resistance is 100 Ω at 0° C
and the standard temperature coefficient is an alpha of .00385.
 Outside Diameter
The outside diameters range from .063″ to .500″. In US, the most common RTD outside diameter in use
is 0.25″ while in other countries it is normally 6mm.

Tubing Material
316 Stainless steel is used for assemblies up to 500° F. Above 500° F Inconel 600 is used.
Process Connection
Process connection fittings consists all regular fittings that are utilized with thermocouples .

Fig. – Components of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Wire Configuration
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are available in three different wire configurations.
These configurations are 2, 3 and 4 wire configurations.

The most commonly used materials for wire insulation are Fiberglass and Teflon. Teflon is used
up to 400° F as it is moisture resistant. Fiberglass is used up to 1000°F.

Cold End Termination

RTDs can terminate on the cold end with plugs, terminal heads, bare wires, and any of the
reference junctions common to thermocouples.

When the metal’s temperature increases, the resistance to the electron’s flow also increases.
Similarly, as and when the temperature of element used in the Resistance Temperature Detector
increases, the resistance increases too.

Applications of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The applications of Resistance Temperature Detectors in various industries include:

o In Automotive Industry – As audio amplifiers and engine oil temperature sensors.

o In Communication and Instrumentation – As temperature sensors and amplifiers.
o In Consumer Electronics – For small appliance controls and Fire Detectors.
o In Industrial Electronics – For gas flow indicators and Plastic laminating equipment.
o In Medical Electronics – For blood dialysis equipment and Infant incubators.

Fig. – Applications of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

RTDs should be used when:

 Stability and accuracy are a requirement of the customer’s specification.

 Accuracy extends over a wide temperature range.

 High degree of standardization is desirable.

Advantages of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The advantages of Resistance Temperature Detectors include:

 Linearity over wide operating range

 Wide temperature operating range

 High temperature operating range

 Interchangeability over wide range

 Good stability at high temperature

Disadvantages of Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The disadvantages of Resistance Temperature Detectors include:
 Low sensitivity

 Higher cost than thermocouples

 No point sensing

 Affected by shock and vibration

 Requires three or four-wire operation

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 THERMAL IMAGING

Introduction:
Thermal imaging is a technology that enables detection of people and objects in total darkness
and in very diverse weather conditions. Photos or videos where everything is a red and yellow
mess, that’s called thermography—more colloquially known as thermal imaging.

Thermal imaging is used in all sorts of different scenarios—utility and energy companies use it
to see where a house might be losing heat through door and window cracks. Police helicopters
use it to locate suspects at night. Weather stations use it to track storms and hurricanes. It’s used
in the medical field to diagnose different disorders and diseases. A typical application for
thermal imaging is border security, where most threats occur at night.

What Is Thermal Imaging?

In the most basic of terms, thermal imaging allows us to see an object’s heat radiating off itself.
Thermal cameras more or less record the temperature of various objects in the frame, and then
assign each temperature a shade of a color, which lets us see how much heat its radiating
compared to objects around it.

Colder temperatures are often given a shade of blue, purple, or green, while warmer temperatures
can be assigned a shade of red, orange, or yellow. For example, in the image below of this post,
we’ll notice the person is covered in shades of red, orange, and yellow, while other areas are blue
and purple. That’s because she’s radiating more heat than surrounding objects.

Thermal Imaging
How Does Thermal Imaging Work?

An example of a professional thermal camera

Thermal cameras detect temperature by recognizing and capturing different levels of infrared
light. This light is invisible to the naked eye, but can be felt as heat if the intensity is high
enough.

All objects emit some kind of infrared radiation, and it’s one of the ways that heat is transferred.
If we hold our hand over some hot coals on the grill, those coals are emitting a ton of infrared
radiation, and the heat is transferring to your hand. Furthermore, only about half of the sun’s
energy is given off as visible light—the rest is a mix of ultravoilet and infrared light.

The hotter an object is, the more infrared radiation it produces. Thermal cameras can see this
radiation and convert it to an image that we can then see with our eyes, much like how a night
vision camera can capture invisible infrared light and convert it to an image that our eyes can
see.
Inside of a thermal camera, there are a bunch of tiny measuring devices that capture infrared
radiation, called microbolometers, and each pixel has one. From there, the microbolometer
records the temperature and then assigns that pixel to an appropriate color. As we might have
guessed, this is why most thermal cameras have an extremely low resolution compared to
modern TVs and other displays—in fact, a very good resolution for a thermal camera is only
around 640×480.

Johnson’s Criteria

The distance we see a given target with a thermal imaging camera is called the “range”. To
correctly determine the range of a thermal imaging camera requires some sophisticated
modeling. There are many variables to consider including the type of thermal imaging camera
you are using, the type of lens you are using, the nature and size of the object you want to detect,
the atmospheric conditions and the very definition of what it means to “see” a target.

“Seeing” an object to define what is meant by “seeing a target”, the so-called Johnson’s criteria
can be used. John Johnson, a Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate scientist, developed
criteria that relate to the effective range of infrared cameras. Although developed for the military
(hence the use of the term “target” to refer to the object of interest), the Johnson criteria are
widely used in the commercial marketplace to characterize thermal imaging systems. According
to these criteria a distinction needs to be made between degrees of “seeing” a target:

Detection: In order to detect if an object is present or not, its critical dimension needs to be
covered by 1.5 or more pixels. 1.5 pixels in a staring array is equivalent to 0.75 “cycles”, which
is the unit of system resolution originally used in Johnson’s definition.

Recognition: Recognizing an object is defined as seeing what type of object it is. It means being
able to make the distinction between a person, a car, a truck or any other object. In order to
recognize an object it needs to be subtended by at least 6 pixels across its critical dimension.

Identification: This term is often used in the military sense of the word, which means seeing if
someone is “friend or foe”. In order to do this, the critical dimension of the object in question
needs to be subtended by at least 12 pixels.

*As the object that needs to be detected increases in size, the maximum detection range also
increases.

Important Parameter:

1. Focal length
2. Cooled versus un-cooled thermal imaging cameras
3. Atmospheric conditions
4. Range
5. Nomograph
1. Focal length
a) A critical parameter that affects how far one can see with a thermal imaging
camera is the focal length of the lens. The focal length determines the +
instantaneous field of view (IFoV) of a camera system.
b) The IFoV then determines the distance at which a target’s critical dimension
subtends the required number of pixels to achieve detection, recognition or
identification. The longer the focal length of the lens, the smaller the IFoV
becomes, which translates into more pixels across a target at a fixed range.
c) It should also be noted that the total field of view scales inversely with focal
length - long lenses give small fields of view.
d) As a result, infrared camera systems often have multiple focal length lenses to
enable rapid target detection with subsequent identification when the system
zooms in.
2. Cooled versus un-cooled thermal imaging cameras

a) There is also a difference between how far you can see with a cooled and with
an uncooled thermal imaging camera. Cooled camera systems are more
expensive, but generally have a longer range than uncooled systems under
many conditions.
b) Extremely long range thermal imaging applications are best served by cooled
camera systems. This is particularly true in the midwave band ( subset of
the infrared band of the electromagnetic spectrum, covering the wavelengths ranging
from 3µm to 5µm (3000nm to 5000nm). This is the radiant heat that our cooled thermal
imaging cameras see.) in humid atmospheric conditions.

((((Thermal imaging cameras with a cooled detector offer some advantages

over thermal imaging cameras with an uncooled detector. However, they are
more expensive. A modern cooled thermal imaging camera has an imaging
sensor that is integrated with a cryocooler, which lowers the sensor temperature
to cryogenic temperatures))))
The cryogenic temperature range has been defined as from −150 °C (−238 °F) to
absolute zero (−273 °C or −460 °F), the temperature at which molecular motion
comes as close as theoretically possible to ceasing completely.

3. Atmospheric conditions
a) Although thermal imaging cameras can see through total darkness, light fog,
light rain and snow, the distance they can see is affected by these atmospheric
conditions. Even in clear skies, inherent atmospheric absorption places limits
on how far a particular infrared camera system can see
4. Range is affected by many variables
a) It depends on a large number of environmental and system variables,
including the nature of the target (parked vehicle versus running vehicle),
the background (hot desert versus cold snow), and atmospheric conditions
(clear skies versus fog). It also depends on the specific camera and lens
combination you choose.
5. Nomographs
a) An excellent way to estimate how far you can see a target with a thermal
imaging camera is to use a nomograph. A nomograph is a graphical calculator
which represents numerical relationships between variables such as focal
length, range and the number of pixels on target.
How Is It Different Than Night Vision?

Technically, thermal imaging can be a form of night vision, and it’s used as such. But if our goal
is to simply see in the dark, its bit overkill. Police helicopters, for instance, thermal night vision
is great to have, since it can easily differentiate a person from the rest of the environment. This
not only makes it easier to spot suspects in the dark, but even in broad daylight it makes it much
easier to find someone who may have blended in with their surroundings.

However, most thermal cameras rely on longer wavelengths of infrared, whereas typical night
vision security camera captures shorter wavelengths of infrared, and is much cheaper to
manufacturer. Thermal cameras, on the other hand, have the ability to capture longer
wavelengths of infrared, allowing it to detect heat.

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 HALL EFFECT SENSORS
Introduction

Magnetic sensors are solid state devices which generate electrical signals proportional to the
magnetic field applied on it. These electrical signals are then further processed by a user specific
electronic circuit to give the desired output.

Now days, these Magnetic sensors are capable in responding for a wide range of magnetic fields.
One of such magnetic sensor is Hall Effect Sensor whose output (Voltage) is a function of
magnetic field density.

An external magnetic field is used to activate these Hall Effect Sensors. When the magnetic flux
density in the vicinity of Sensor goes beyond a specific defined threshold, it is detected by the
Sensor. On detection, the Sensor generates an output voltage which is also known as Hall
Voltage.

Figure1: Hall Effect Sensors

These Hall Effect Sensors are in high demand and have very wide spread applications such as
Proximity sensors, Switches, Wheel speed sensors, Positional sensors, etc.

Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type semiconductor material
such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or indium arsenide (InAs) passing a
continuous current through itself.
Working Principle of Hall Effect Sensor

Hall Effect Sensor is based on Hall Effect Principle. This principle says that when a conductor or
semiconductor with current flowing in one direction is introduced perpendicular to a magnetic
field a voltage could be measured at right angles to the current path.

Fig. 2 – Hall Effect Principle – Current Flowing Through a Plate

How Hall Effect Sensor Works

The working of Hall Effect Sensor is described below:

 When an electric current flows through the Sensor, the electrons move through it in a
straight line.
 When an external magnetic field acts on the Sensor, the Lorentz force deviates the charge
carriers to follow a curved path.
 Due to this, the Negative Charge Electrons will deflect towards one side of the Sensor
and the Positive Charge Holes to another.

Fig. 3 – Hall Effect Principle – Deflection of Electrons and Holes

  Due to this accumulation of electrons and holes at different side of the plate, a voltage
(potential difference) can be observed between the sides of the plate. The voltage
obtained is directly proportional to the electric current and magnetic field strength.

Types of Hall Effect Sensors

The Hall Effect Sensors can be classified into its types on two basis:

1. On the basis of Output

2. On the basis of Operation

On the Basis of Output

On the basis of Output, the Hall Effect Sensors can be classified into two types: –

a) Analog Output Hall Effect Sensors

b) Digital Output Hall Effect Sensors

a) Analog Output Hall Effect Sensors

Fig. 4 – Analog Output Hall Effect Sensor Circuit Diagram

The Analog Output Hall Effect Sensors contains a voltage regulator, a Hall Element and an
amplifier. As the name suggests, the output of such type of sensor is analog in nature and
proportional to magnetic field strength and the output of Hall Element.These Sensors have a
continuous linear output. Due to this property, they are appropriate to be used as proximity
sensors.
 Fig. 5 – Output of Analog Output Hall Effect Sensor

b) Digital Output Hall Effect Sensors

The Digital Output Hall Effect Sensors have only two outputs i.e “ON” and “OFF”.
These Sensors have an extra element ‘Schmitt Trigger’ added as compared to Analog
Output Hall Effect Sensors.

Fig. 6 – Digital Output Hall Effect Sensor Circuit Diagram

It is the ‘Schmitt Trigger’ that inducts a Hysteresis effect and so two different threshold levels
are achieved. Accordingly, the output of the entire circuit will be either Low or High.

Hall Effect Switch is one of such type of sensors. These Digital Output Sensors are widely used
as limit switches in CNC Machines, Three Dimensional (3D) printers and positional interlocks in
Automated Systems.

Fig. 7 – Output of Digital Output Hall Effect Sensor

On the Basis of Operation

On the basis of Operation, the Hall Effect Sensors can be classified into two types: –
 a) Bipolar Hall Effect Sensor
b) Unipolar Hall Effect Sensor

a) Bipolar Hall Effect Sensor

As the name suggests, these Sensors require both positive and negative magnetic fields for their
operation. Positive magnetic field of magnet’s South Pole is used to activate the sensor and
Negative magnetic field of magnet’s North Pole is used to release the sensor.

Fig. 8 – Bipolar Hall Effect Sensor

b) Unipolar Hall Effect Sensor

As the name suggests, these Sensors require only positive magnetic field of magnet’south pole to
activate as well as release the sensor.

Fig. 9 – Unipolar Hall Effect Sensor

Mathematical Expressions for Hall Effect Principle

Here are some mathematical expressions which are widely used in Hall Effect calculations: –
Hall Voltage
Hall Voltage is represented by VH. The mathematical Expression for Hall voltage is:-

Where:
I – Current flowing through the Sensor
B – Magnetic Field Strength
q – Charge
n – number of charge carriers per unit volume
d – Thickness of the Sensor

Hall Coefficient
It is represented by RH. Mathematical expression for Hall Coefficient (RH) is 1/(qn). The Hall
Coefficient (RH) is positive if the number of positive charge Holes are more than the number of
negative charge Electrons. Similarly, The Hall Coefficient (RH) is negative if the numbers of
negative charge Electrons are more than the number of positive charge Holes.
Charge Carrier Concentration
The Charge Carrier Concentration of Electrons is represented by ‘n’ and Holes is represented by
‘p’. The mathematical expression for the Charge Carrier Concentration is: –

Hall Mobility
The Hall Mobility for Electrons is represented by ‘μn‘ and for Holes is represented by ‘μp‘. The
mathematical expression for the Hall Mobility is: –

Where:

μn – Conductivity due to Electrons

μp – Conductivity due to Holes

Magnetic Flux Density

The Magnetic Flux Density is represented by ‘B’. The mathematical expression for the Magnetic
Flux Density is: –
Applications of Hall Effect Sensor
The applications of Hall Effect Sensors have been represented in two categories for ease of
understanding.

a) Applications of Analog Hall Effect Sensors

b) Applications of Digital Hall Effect Sensors

a) Applications of Analog Hall Effect Sensors

Analog Hall Effect Sensors are utilized for:

 Direct Current sensing in Clamp meters (also known as Tong Testers).

 Wheel speed detection for the anti-lock braking system.
 Motor control devices for protection and indications.
 Sensing the availability of Power supply.
 Motion Sensing.
 Sensing the rate of flow.
 Sensing Diaphragm pressure in Diaphragm pressure gauge.
 Sensing Vibration.
 Sensing Ferrous Metal in Ferrous Metal Detectors.
 Voltage Regulation.

b) Applications of Digital Hall Effect Sensors

Digital Hall Effect Sensors are utilized for:

 Sensing the angular position of the crank shaft for the firing angle of the spark plugs.
 Sensing the position of the car seats and seat belts for air-bag control .
 Wireless Communications.
 Sensing Pressure.
 Sensing Proximity.
 Sensing rate of flow.
 Sensing position of Valves.
 Sensing position of Lens.

Advantages of Hall Effect Sensors

Hall Effect Sensors have the following advantages:
  They can be used for multiple sensor functions like position sensing, speed sensing as
well as for sensing the direction of movement too.
 As they are solid state devices, there is absolutely no wear and tear due to absence of
moving parts.
 They are almost maintenance free.
 They are robust.
 They are immune to vibration, dust and water.

Disadvantages of Hall Effect Sensors

The Hall Effect Sensors have the following disadvantages: –

 They are not capable to measure current flow at a distance more than 10 cm. The only
solution to overcome this issue is to use a very strong magnet that can generate a wide
magnetic field.
 Accuracy of the measured value is always a concern as external magnetic fields may
affect the values.
 High Temperature affects the conductor resistance. This will in turn affect the charge
carrier’s mobility and sensitivity of Hall Effect Sensors.

How large electrical loads can be controlled by Hall Effect Sensors

We already know that the output drive capability of a Hall Effect Sensor is very low (10 to 20
mA). It is therefore, it cannot directly control large electrical loads. However, we can control
large electrical loads with Hall Effect Sensors by adding an Open Collector NPN Transistor
(current sink) to the output.

The NPN Transistor (current sink) functions in the saturated state as a sink switch. It shorts the
output terminal with the ground whenever the flux density is more than the preset ‘ON’ Value.

The output switching transistor may be in different configurations as open emitter transistor,
open collector transistor or both. That’s how it provides a pull/push output which enables it to
sink enough current to drive large loads directly.

How Hall effect can be used to identify type of Semiconductor used?

The Hall Coefficient tells it all. If the Hall Coefficient is negative, it means that the majority
charge carriers are Electrons. And as the number of electrons are more compared to Holes in n-
type semiconductors, that clearly indicates that the semiconductor being tested is n-type.
Similarly, if the Hall Coefficient is positive, it means that the majority charge carriers are Holes.
And as the numbers of Holes are more compared to electrons in p-type semiconductors, that
clearly indicates that the semiconductor being tested is p-type.

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 PROXIMITY SENSOR INDUCTIVE

Smartphone know to dim the screen and disable touch interaction before it comes into contact
with a user’s ear—and they’re only capable thanks to a photoelectric proximity sensor. Proximity
devices can to infer the presence of a variety of objects and materials without direct contact. The
most common proximity sensors are inductive, capacitive, photoelectric, and ultrasonic.

Inductive sensors: Introduction

Inductive sensing operates via a solid-state control system. An oscillator circuit emits a
magnetic field from a ferrite core and coil array. When the systems emitted frequency
encounters a metal object, it shifts and causes the oscillation amplitude to drop. If this occurs, it
signals the presence of the target object.
Specs:
• Detects ferrous and non-ferrous materials such as: Iron, Steel, and Copper
• Low detection range of 4 - 40mm
• Typically rated by frequency
• AC: 10 - 20 Hz
• DC: 500 Hz - 5 kHz

Construction and Working

The inductive proximity sensor detects the metallic object which is present next to their active
side. This sensor operates under the electrical principal of inductance where a fluctuating current
induces an electromotive force(EMF) in a target object. These non-contact proximity sensors
detect ferrous targets, ideally mild steel thicker than one millimetre.
They consist of four major components:
1. A ferrite core with coils
2. An oscillator
3. A Schmitt trigger, and
4. An output amplifier.
This sensor has 2 main versions and they are,

1. Unshielded: Electromagnetic field generated by the coil is unrestricted, allowing for

wider and greater sensing distances.

2. Shielded: Electromagnetic field generated is concentrated in the front, where sides of the
sensor coil are covered up
Working Principle of Inductive Proximity Sensor

1. The oscillator creates a symmetrical, oscillating magnetic field that radiates from the
ferrite core and coil array at the sensing face. When a ferrous target enters this magnetic
field, small independent electrical currents (eddy currents) which are induced on the
metal’s surface.

2. An inductive proximity sensor has the frequency range from 10 to 20 Hz in ac, or 500 Hz
to 5 kHz in dc. Because of magnetic field limitations, inductive sensors have a relatively
narrow sensing range like from fractions of millimetres to 60 mm on an average.

3. Due to this, load will be caused on the sensor that decreases the electromagnetic field
amplitude. If the metal object moves towards the proximity sensor, the eddy current will
increase accordingly. Thus, the load on the oscillator will increase, which decreases the
field amplitude.
4. The Schmitt trigger block monitors the amplitude of the oscillator and at particular level
(predetermined level) the trigger circuit switches on or off the sensor. If the metal object
 or target is moved away from the proximity sensor, then the amplitude of the oscillator
will increase.

5. The above image shows the waveform of the inductive proximity sensor oscillator in the
presence of the target and in the absence of the target.
6. Nowadays, inductive proximity sensors are available with different operating voltages.
These inductive proximity sensors are available in AC, DC, and AC/DC modes (universal
modes). The operating range of the proximity sensor circuits is from 10V to 320V DC
and 20V to 265V AC.

Advantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

• Contactless detection
• Environment adaptability- resistant to common conditions seen in industrial areas such
as dust and dirt
• Capable and versatile in metal sensing
• High switching rate
• No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life

Disadvantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

• Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 60 mm

• Can only detect metal objects
• External conditions like extreme temperatures, cutting fluids or chemical affects on the
performance of the sensor.

Applications of Inductive Proximity Sensors

• Machine tolls, assembly line, automotive industry

• Detection of metal parts in harsh environments
• High speed moving parts

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 PROXIMITY SENSOR CAPACITIVE

INTRODUCTION

Relatively similar to inductive sensors, capacitive sensors emit an electrostatic field

instead of a magnetic field. Two metal plates serve as a sensing surface, while an
oscillating circuit forms an electrostatic field within the sensor. When it encounters a
target object, the electrostatic field is disturbed, and changes the capacitance of the
proximity detector.
Specs:
• Detects conductive and non-conductive materials, unlike inductive
detectors.
• Slower due to metal plates
• Ideal for detection within powder, liquid, or granulate
• Detection range of 3 - 60mm
• AC: 10 - 50Hz

Capacitive Proximity Sensor Construction and Working

1. The capacitive proximity sensor consists of a high-frequency oscillator along with a

sensing surface formed by two metal electrodes. When an object comes near the sensing
surface, it enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes the capacitance of
the oscillator.
2. As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating and changes the output state of the
sensor when it reaches up to certain amplitude. As the object moves away from the
sensor, the oscillator’s amplitude decreases, switching the sensor back to its initial state.
 3. The larger the dielectric constant of a target, the easier it is for the capacitive proximity
sensor to detect. This constant makes possible the detection of materials inside
nonmetallic containers because the liquid has a much higher dielectric constant than the
vessel, which gives the sensor the ability to see through the vessel and detect the fluid.

4. They typically have a short sensing range of about 1 inch, regardless of the type of
material being sensed.

5. While dealing with non-conductive targets, sensing distance increases with an increase in

• The sensing surface size of the sensor.

• The surface area of the target.
• The dielectric constant of the target.

(For best operation, we should use them in an environment with relatively constant
temperature and humidity.)

6. The point at which the proximity sensor recognizes an incoming target is known as the
operating point. The point at which an outgoing target causes the device to switch back to
its normal state is known as the release point. The area between operating and release
points is called the hysteresis zone.

7. The sensitivity adjustment can be made by adjusting a potentiometer provided on the

sensor. If the sensor does not have an adjustment potentiometer, then the sensor must
physically be moved to get the optimum installation position.

8. Optimum sensitivity provides a longer operating distance. However, the operation of the
oversensitive sensor is very much affected by temperature, humidity, and dirt, etc. and
may cause false triggering of the sensor.
 9. Most proximity sensors are equipped with an LED status indicator to verify the output
switching action. Capacitive proximity sensors are available in various sizes and
configurations to meet different application requirements.

10. One of the most common shapes is the barrel type, which houses the sensor in a metal or
polymer barrel with threads on the outside of the housing. Due to the threaded housing,
we can easily adjust the sensor on a mounting frame.

Characteristics of Capacitive Proximity Sensor

The major characteristics of capacitive proximity sensors are as under:

• They can detect nonmetallic targets.

• They can detect lightweight or small objects that cannot be detected by mechanical limit
switches.
• They provide a high switching rate for rapid response in object counting applications.
• They can detect liquid targets through nonmetallic barriers (glass, plastic, etc.).
• They have a long operational life with a virtually unlimited number of operating cycles.
• The solid-state output provides a bounce-free contact signal.

Advantages of Capacitive sensor

• It can be used to detect non-metallic targets.

• It can detect through containers of certain types also.
• It is simple in construction and adjustable.
• It can detect dense targets and liquids.
• It is lower in cost.
• It has higher sensitivity and can be operational with small magnitude of force.
• It can be used for the measurement of force, pressure and humidity etc.
• It has very good resolution (as low as 0.003 mm) and frequency response.

Disadvantages of Capacitive sensor

• It is very much sensitive to changes in environmental conditions such as temperature,

humidity etc. This will affect the performance.
• The measurement of capacitance is hard compare to measurement of resistance.
 • Capacitive proximity sensor are not so accurate compare to inductive sensor type.

Typical Applications of Capacitive Proximity Sensors

• High/low liquid level.

• Dry tank.
• Material present/absent.
• Product present.
• Product count.

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PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS

INTRODUCTION
1. Photoelectric sensor is a generic name for sensors which detect an object by using light.
The optical signal transmitted from the emitting part of the sensor is modified by being
reflected, transmitted, absorbed, etc., by the sensing object and is then detected by the
receiving part of the sensor to generate a corresponding output signal.

2. Further, it can also be a sensor which detects light radiated from the sensing object to
generate an output signal. Fiber sensors and laser sensors are also one type of
photoelectric sensor.They’re versatile sensors used in a variety of industries.

3. There are three common photoelectric sensor configurationsv that operate similarly to
one another but are suited to different environments.

a) Thru-beam sensing uses two separately housed light emissions faced at one
another. A beam of light is created when the light from the emitter and through-
beam combine. Detection is triggered when an object intercepts the beam.
Common with garage door operations and conveyor belt monitors.
Specs:
• Effective among airborne contaminants
• Meet long range requirements of 25m and beyond
• Costly, difficult to assemble

b) Retro-reflective sensing is similar to through-beam because it uses two beam

sensors; however, it houses both the emitter and receiver in one location. A
reflector is placed opposite, and reflects the emitter beam back to the receiver.
Any break or disturbance in the beam signals the detector.

Specs:
• Cost-effective
• Meets similar long-range requirements
• Sensitive to reflective items in their surroundings

c) Diffuse sensing works similar to retro-reflective, but instead of a reflector, the

target object acts as the indicator. The device emits an infrared light or laser,
creating a diffusion of light in a detection zone, which is then reflected off of the
target object. Reflected light is then sent back to the receiver, where output is
determined.
Specs:
• Simple to install
• Can be adjusted to a specific target area
• Sensitive to reflective, and/or textured surfaces
TYPES OF SENSORS

Classification methods

There are various types of photoelectric sensors. Four different methods of classification,
depending on the objective considered, are explained here.

1. Classification by structure

This classification is based on the manner in which the circuit configuration elements are
built-in or separated. This classification is useful to select sensors in view of the
mounting space, power supply and noise immunity

Type Outline and Features

PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS

Amplifier built-in

Power supply built-in

 Amplifier-separated

Fiber

2. Classification by sensing mode

This classification is based on how the light is emitted and received and on the sensor
shape. This classification is useful to select sensors in view of the sensing object size and
the surrounding conditions.
 Type Outline and Features
Thru-beam

General purpose

U-shaped

Area

Retroreflective

General Purpose

With polarizing filters

 Transparent object
detection

Reflective

Diffuse reflective

Narrow-view reflective

Convergent reflective

Adjustable range
reflective

Mark sensing
3. Classification by beam source

This classification is based on the type of beam source used. This classification is useful
to select sensors in view of the sensing distance and the color differences of objects. LED
is used on the emitting element. However, we also have the laser sensor uses semi-
conductor laser.

Type Outline and Features

Infrared beam • Intense beam offers long sensing range
• Unable to expose films
Red beam • Suitable for color mark sensing
• Visible
• We also have laser sensors that used
semiconductor lasers instead of LEDs
Green beam • Suitable for color mark sensing
• Suitable for minute detection because of a
high beam damping ratio.
• Visible
Blue beam • Suitable for color mark sensing
• Suitable for minute detection because of a
high beam damping ratio.
• Visible
Three color beam (Red • Green • Blue) • Color detected by resolving it into three
color components
• Fine color discrimination possible
4. Classification by output circuit

This classification is based on the type of output circuit and the output voltage. This
classification is useful to select sensors according to the input conditions of the device or
equipment connected to the sensor output.
 Type Outline and Features

ON/OFF OUTPUT

NPN open-collector transistor

PNP open-collector transistor

DC 2-wire
 NPN transistor universal

Relay contact

ANALOG OUTPUT

Analog voltage

Analog current (Monitor current)

ADVANTAGES OF PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR
• It senses all kinds of materials.
• It has longer life.
• It has long sensing range and very reliable.
• It has very fast response time.
• It is less costly.
• Diffuse photoelectric sensor detects small objects including color mark and label
detection.
• Retro-reflective type can detect transparent objects.
• Thru beam type can detect long range and it is tolerant of dirty environment.
DISADVANTAGES OF PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR
• Over course of time lens get contaminated.
• Its sensing range is affected due to color and reflectivity of the target.
• Thru beam type requires transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) at two separate locations.
Retro-reflective type requires reflector in addition to Tx/Rx. This makes system
installation complex.

APPLICATIONS FOR PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS

• Checking objects on production lines or conveyors: Photoelectric sensors can detect
item’s sizes to spot any errors, or simply spot their absence, as well as picking up
problems like misaligned caps on bottles. They are widely used in the food and
pharmaceutical industries, and in packaging plants.
• Counting small objects: In some production environments, small items will fall from a
vibrating conveyor belt into a packaging system or bag – and a photoelectric sensor can
count them.
• Detecting colors: By scanning independently in red, green and blue light, with
applications in multiple processes in the printing and packaging sectors.
• Monitoring bigger areas for objects with light grids: Instead of using multiple sensors,
a ‘light grid’ uses parallel beams of light to cover a two-dimensional area.
• Measuring distance: With multiple sensors, a triangulation process compares reflected
laser beams and can be used to accurately determine position and distance, for example,
to check the location of manufacturing systems, or in automated transport applications.
• Logistics and materials handling: Automated warehouses with robotic pickers or trucks
rely on position and object sensing to operate efficiently and safely.
• Automatic doors: In buildings or public transport, photoelectric sensors detect when
someone is standing by a door.
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