Answers

Question 1

Spray aeration: Increases O2 and removes CO2

Dry filtration (combination of aeration and filtration): Removes NH4+ and Fe2+
Tower aeration: Increases O2 and removes CO2
Softening: Reduces hardness
Rapid sand filtration: Removes the ‘carry-over’ from softening

Composition:
Concentration Molar mass Molar concentration
(mg/l) (g/mol) (mmol/l)
Ca2+ 100 40 100 / 40 = 2.5
Mg2+ 12 24 0.5
HCO3- 306 61 5.0
CO2 44 44 1.0

For softening 2 mmol/l Ca(OH)2 is dosed

Step 1: Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
Reduced CO2 = y
Step 2: Ca(OH)2 + 2 HCO3- + Ca2+  2 CaCO3 + 2 H2O
Removed Ca2+ = x , removed HOC3- = 2x
Total: x + y = 2 mmol/l or y = 2 – x

The calcium carbonic acid equilibrium:

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O ↔ Ca2+ + 2HCO3- (Ka)
Ka = [Ca2+] . [HCO3-]2 / [CO2] = 10-4.33

4.68 . 10-5 = [Ca2+] . [HCO3-]2 / [CO2]

= (2.5 – x) (5 – 2x)2 / (1 – x) . 10-6
46.8 (1 – Y) = (2.5 – x) (4x2 – 20x + 25)
46.8 (x – 1) = - 4x3 + 30x2 – 75x + 62.5
46.8x = - 4x3 + 30x2 – 75x + 109.3
0 = - 4x3 + 30x2 – 121.8x + 109.3
Solve for x = 1.2 mmol/l
Solve for y = 2 – 1.2 = 0.8 mmol/l

The water quality after softening:

[Ca2+] = 2.5 – 1.2 = 1.3 mmol/l
[Mg2+] = 0.5 mmol/l
[HCO3-] = 5 – 2(1.2) = 2.6 mmol/l
[CO2] = 1 – 0.8 = 0.2 mmol/l

Total hardness = [Ca2+] + [Mg2+] = 1.3 + 0.5 = 1.8 mmol/l

Question 2

RQ = 5
k2t = 10
kd = 1.23 (CO2 at 10oC)

Efficiency of CO2 removal:

𝑘 1.23
�−𝑘2 ∙𝑡�1+ 𝑑 �� �−10�1+ ��
𝑅𝑄 5
1−𝑒 1−𝑒
𝐾3 = = = 0.8
𝑘𝑑 1.23
1+ 1+
𝑅𝑄 5
Question 3

The removal efficiency of CO2 could be increased by setting up a counter current flow.
(co-current, K3 = 0.8; counter current, K4≈1).
Disadvantages of using the counter current flow:
1) limestone scaling
2) flooding can occur.

Question 4

RQ = 5
k2t = 10
kd = 0.04 (O2 at 10oC)

𝑘 0.04
�−𝑘2 ∙𝑡�1+ 𝑑 �� �−10�1+ ��
𝑅𝑄 5
1−𝑒 1−𝑒
𝐾3 = = = 0.99 ≈ 1
𝑘𝑑 0.04
1+ 1+
𝑅𝑄 5

Efficiency of O2 is larger than the efficiency of CO2

Question 5

Increasing the dosage of Ca(OH)2 would reduce the hardness. However it would
increase material and operation costs as pellets’ growth increases, which requires the
pellets to be drawn off and new sand added more frequently.
Another option is by using a split treatment. Benefits include lower chemical
consumption and lower construction costs as fewer reactors need to be built.

Question 6

After dosing with NaOH the pH will be lower, Na+ would be higher and HCO3- also
increases. The pellets are produced at a lower rate and the cost of operation is
reduced as dosing with NaOH is much simpler.