PATEROS CATHOLIC SCHOOL

F. Imson St., Pateros, Metro Manila

Accredited: PAASCU Level 2
STEM
(Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics)
Module 6
A.Y. 2020 - 2021

General Biology- 02

Instructor/Facilitator Miss Kimberly Vargas

Appointment Period First Quarter – Week 1
Classroom Instruction Two Times a Week
Period Length 40 minutes per Classroom Period

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Most animals, including humans, reproduce sexually. Sexual reproduction requires a specialized form
of cell division, meiosis, to produce haploid gametes, each of which has a single complete set of chromosomes.
These gametes, including sperm and eggs (or ova; singular ovum), are united by fertilization to restore the
diploid complement of chromosomes. The diploid fertilized egg, or zygote, develops by mitotic division into a
new multicellular organism. However, for other animals, asexual reproduction can also be observed. Bacteria,
archaea, protists, and multicellular animals including cnidarians and tunicates, as well as many other types of
animals, reproduce asexually. In asexual reproduction, genetically identical cells are produced from a single
parent cell through mitosis. In single celled organisms, an individual organism divides, a process called fission,
and then each part becomes a separate but identical organism.

REPRODUCTION is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of
reproduction. It is a biological process by which new individual organism are produced from their parents.

Two types of reproduction

1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION is a type of reproduction of animals whereby a single parent produces

offspring by cell division or without fusion of gametes.

2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION is a type of reproduction involving the union of gametes.

Remember that in Kingdom Animalia, animals can reproduce SEXUALLY, ASEXUALLY or by both
means.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. Fragmentation is a type of asexual reproduction in which a body breaks into several fragments, which
later develop into complete organisms. For example, a new starfish can develop from a single ray, or arm. In
addition to starfish, this type of reproduction is common among some worms, fungi and plants.

-A form of asexual reproduction in which an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop
into matured, fully grown individuals that are identical to their parents.

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- It is the breaking of the body into two parts with subsequent regeneration. If the animal is capable of
fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a separate individual will regrow.

Regeneration involves the production and differentiation of new tissues to replace missing and
damaged parts of the body. It involves cellular replication by mitosis followed by differentiation of
tissues.

Example: Planaria

2. Budding is a type of asexual reproduction whereby a part of the parent’s body becomes separated from
the rest and differentiates into a new individual. The new individual may become an independent animal or
may remain attached to the parent, forming a colony.

- It involves forming new individual from an outgrowth on the parents body. The buds branch out from the
side of the body, then breaks off to produce new organism.

Examples: hydra, polyp, yeast cell.

3. Parthenogenesis is common in many species of arthropods. In parthenogenesis, females produce offspring

from unfertilized eggs. Some species are exclusively parthenogenic (and all female), whereas others switch
between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis, producing progeny that are both diploid and haploid,
respectively. In honeybees, for example, a queen bee mates only once and stores the sperm. She then can
control the release of the sperm. If no sperm are released, the eggs develop parthenogenetically into haploid
drones, which are males. If sperm are allowed to fertilize the eggs, the fertilized eggs develop into diploid
worker bees, which are female. However, when fertilized eggs are exposed to the appropriate hormone, they
will develop into queens.

- It is a development that involves an activated unfertilized egg that undergo mitosis in the absence of
cytokinesis

Examples: aphid bee, wasp, ants

Sexual reproduction involves the union of gametes; from zygote (fertilized egg) to a reproductively capable
individual

Characteristic of gametes in eukaryotes

a. Isogamy

- Isogamy is a form of sexual reproduction that involves gametes of similar morphology (generally similar
in shape and size), found in most unicellular organisms. Because both gametes look alike, they generally cannot
be classified as male or female. Instead, organisms undergoing isogamy are said to have different mating
types, most commonly noted as "+" and "−" strains.

b. Anisogamy (Oogamy)

- Anisogamy (also called heterogamy) is the form of sexual reproduction that involves the union or fusion
of two gametes, which differ in size and/or form. The smaller gamete is considered to be male (a sperm cell),
whereas the larger gamete is regarded as female (typically an egg cell, if non-motile). The form of anisogamy
that occurs in animals, including humans, is oogamy, where a large, non-motile egg (ovum) is fertilized by a
small, motile sperm (spermatozoon). The egg is optimized for longevity, whereas the small sperm is optimized

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for motility and speed. The size and resources of the egg cell allow for the production of pheromones, which
attract the swimming sperm cells.

SPECIAL CASE: In some animals, both female and male reproductive organs occur within same individual.
They are called HERMAPHRODITES. Hermaphroditism is when one individual has both testes and ovaries,
and so can produce both sperm and eggs. A tapeworm is hermaphroditic and can fertilize itself, a useful
strategy because it is unlikely to encounter another tapeworm. Most hermaphroditic animals, however, require
another individual in order to reproduce. Two earthworms, for example, are required for reproduction— each
functions as both male and female during copulation, and each leaves the encounter with fertilized eggs.

GONADS are the primary reproductive organs, testes in the male and the ovaries in the female. These organs
are responsible for producing the sperm and ova known as gametogenesis (long sequence of events that
take place in the production of sperm cell and egg cell), but they also secrete hormones and are considered
to be endocrine glands.

TESTIS – Male gonad; testes also called testicles are two oval-shaped organs in the male reproductive system.
They’re contained in a sac of skin called the scrotum. The scrotum hangs outside the body in the front of the
pelvic region near the upper thighs. The main function of the testes is producing and storing sperm. They’re
also crucial for producing testosterone and other male hormones called androgens.

OVARY – Female gonad; a ductless reproductive gland in which the female reproductive cells are produced.
Females have a pair of ovaries, held by a membrane beside the uterus on each side of the lower abdomen.
The ovary is needed in reproduction since it is responsible for producing the female reproductive cells, or ova.
It is also responsible for the production of female hormones.

ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT are the processes that lead eventually to the formation of a new animal starting
from cells derived from one or more parent individuals.

Types of Development

1. Indirect Development a type of development that involves a sexually-immature larval stage, having
different food requirements than adults. It involves one or more intermediate larval forms before the adult
form is attained. Metamorphosis involving development of larva to a sexually-mature adult is present. This type
of development usually occurs in most of the invertebrates and amphibians.

2. Direct Development a type of development in which an embryo develops into a mature individual
without involving a larval stage. The offspring hatch or born in miniature adult form. One of its distinct
characteristics is that its extended development is sustained by transfer of nutrients. It mostly occurs in fishes,
reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Examples of Direct Development

a. Eutherian/placental mammals are group of mammals that retain their young for a much longer period
of development within the mother’s uterus. The fetuses are nourished by a structure known as the placenta,
which is derived from both an extraembryonic membrane (the chorion) and the mother’s uterine lining. Because

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the fetal and maternal blood vessels are in very close proximity in the placenta, the fetus can obtain nutrients
by diffusion from the mother’s blood.

b. Monotremes are very primitive for mammals because, like reptiles and birds, they lay eggs rather than
having live birth. They produce milk to nourish their young. Monotremes consisting solely of the duck-billed
platypus and the echidna), they are oviparous, like the reptiles from which mammals evolved. They incubate
glands by licking her skin (because monotremes lack nipples).

c. Pouched mammals or marsupials a group of mammals that includes opossums and kangaroos, they
give birth to small, fetus-like offspring that are incompletely developed. The young complete their development
in a pouch of their mother’s skin, where they can obtain nourishment from nipples of the mammary glands

STEM CELL are biological cells found in almost all multicellular organisms that can divide and differentiate into
diverse specialized cell types and can self-renew to produce more stem cells.

Types of Stem Cells

Scientists categorize stem cells, according to their

potential to differentiate into other types of cells.

Embryonic stem cells are the most potent, as their

job is to become every type of cell in the body.

Totipotent: These stem cells can differentiate

into all possible cell types. The first few cells that
appear as the zygote starts to divide are totipotent.

Pluripotent: These cells can turn into almost any

cell. Cells from the early embryo are pluripotent.

Multipotent: These cells can differentiate into a

closely related family of cells. Adult hematopoietic
stem cells, for example, can become red and white
blood cells or platelets.

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