Cooperation

 The form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain
common ends
 the action or process of working together to the same end.
 Cooperation occurs when people work together to achieve shared goals.
 Exchange is a trade: I give you something and you give me something else in return.
 Cooperation is teamwork: people working together to achieve shared goals.
 Spouses cooperate in raising their children.
 Cooperation also operates at a much broader social level.
 Individuals are most likely to cooperate when faced with a common threat, when
cooperation seems in their economic self-interest, when they share a sense of
community identity, and when they value belonging to a community
 Unity, strength, and hierarchy in organization task achievement
 No society can develop its social organization and social system without
cooperation
 The whole machinery of social life running through cooperation
 In Pakistani societies, rural people cooperate with their neighbours in watering
the crops, plugging the field and harvesting while in urban areas cooperation
between customers and shopkeepers, teachers and students, the owners and
labours etc.
 In order to keep order, unity and cohesion in a social institution, the social
structure of communities cooperation in an utmost necessity
 Types:
 Formal and informal cooperation
 cooperation of teachers and students, Bankers and customers while helping the
aged in crossing the road is informal
 Direct and indirect cooperation
 Help directly in the field and cooperate for a single objective or product.
 E.g cooperation among workers in an industry for a particular products
Competition
 Competition
 In every institution/Organization there is a competition that can be going on whether
we are aware of that or not
 Struggle for limited things between two or more persons
 Opposition may be defined as a struggle against another or others for a commodity,
goal or value.
 But sometimes people can’t reach their goals through exchange or cooperation.
 Opposition can be divided into Competition and conflict.
 Competition is any struggle over scarce resources that is regulated by shared rules.
 It is less violent form of opposition.
 strive for something
 In Conflict the person or group thwarts, injures, or destroys the opponent in order to
secure a goal or reward.
 When the norms are violated and rule-breaking is uncovered, competition may erupt
into conflict.
 One positive consequence of competition is that it stimulates
achievement and heightens people’s aspirations.
 often results in personal stress, reduced cooperation, and social
inequalities.
 Competition is particularly problematic in informal groups such as
friendships and marriages.
 Personal competition refers to the struggle for a scarce thing.
 face to face and know each other (election)
 Interpersonal competition the competitor don’t know each other and
have no interaction (for a position of FPSC)
 Inter and intra-group competition within the group or with another
group. E.g inter-district tournament,
Conflict
 Conflict
 A. W. Green: Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist, or
coerce the will of another or others.
 When a struggle over scarce resources is not regulated by shared
rules, conflict occurs.
 In Conflict, the person or group thwarts, injures, or destroys the
opponent in order to secure a goal or reward.
 Conflict creates divisiveness rather than solidarity.
 Conflict with outsiders, however, may enhance the solidarity of the
group.
 Objectives Power, status, property.
 Element land money and women
 Types of Conflicts:
Class conflict Exploitation lead to class conflict
 Upper class exploit the lower
 E.g. conflict school of thought
Racial Conflict between class
 Which is based on races
 E.g. USA UK and south Africa conflict among Negros and whites
 Religious conflict.
 Religion based or conflict among people based on different belief
 Caste Conflict, International Conflict, political conflict etc.
Accommodation
 Accommodation
 J. M. Baldwin: Acquired changes in the behaviour of individuals which
help them to adjust to their environment.
 Maciver: Accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man
attains a sense of harmony with his environment.
 The parents accommodate their children even at the cost of sacrificing their
own interest
 A newly wedded bride and bridegroom accommodate each other to have a
comfortable and happy life
 Two partners of a firm to accommodate each other for smooth business
 War is followed by peace.
 According to Park and Burgess accommodation have two type
 1. Adjustment to the new natural environment
 Man Adjust himself in new climatic and geographical conditions where he migrates
 2. Adjustment with new social environment
 Individuals migrate to another culture and adopt the cultural condition of that society
Acculturation
Acculturation

 One culture/ group adopting the practice of another culture is called acculturation
 Cultural modification Because of the cross cultural interaction or its member
 the Transmission of cultural traits from one culture to another
 Birthday party, candle night (Mehendee), Marque system
 The reciprocal borrowing of cultural traits by two diverse group may take place
(Acculturation) with the achievement of synthesis (assimilation).
 Mehndi from Hindi culture, Birthday celebration from western culture, etc.
 The first step towards assimilation
Assimilation
 Assimilation
 A process in which cultural differences tend to disappear gradually by the
process of time
 More permanent than accommodation.
 Assimilation is concerned with the absorption and incorporation of one culture
by another.
 One of them losing their group identity.
 Gradual and slow process
 Bogardus: Social process whereby attitudes of many persons are united, and thus
develop into a united group
 Mixing of people together influences both the culture and a stage come when a
nation belonging to one culture either adopts or merge with another culture
 E.g. Afghan refugees, Syrian refugees etc.
Acculturation Assimilation
Microsociology vs Macrosociology
 it involves the study of the dynamics of individual interactions
 Microsociology focuses on smaller groups, patterns and trends, typically at the
community level and in the context of the everyday lives and experiences of people.
 Sociology is the scientific and systematic study of human groups, based on society,
culture and relationships.
 Macrosociology, involves the study of society as a whole, while, Microsociology,
involves the study of individual human interactions.
 Macrosociology refers to sociological approaches and methods that examine large-
scale patterns and trends within the overall social structure, system, and population.
 Macrosociology is the analysis of interactions between society and different cultures
and social institutions.
 Groups, social movement
 Societies pattern behavior of a culture
Dramaturgy (E.Goffman, 1959)

 The study of social interaction in term of theatrical performance.

 A sociological perspective is commonly used in micro-sociological accounts of
social interaction in everyday life.
 The term was first adapted into sociology from the theatre by Erving Goffman,
who developed most of the related terminology and ideas in his 1959 book, The
Presentation of Self in Everyday Life.
 Goffman describes that each individual’s “performance” as the presentation of
self which is a person’s efforts to create a specific impression in the mind of
others.
 Dramaturgical analysis is the study of social interactions by imagining ourselves as
the directors of a drama staged in the theater of everyday life.
 A dramaturgical action is a social action that is designed to be seen by others
and to improve one's public self-image
 People present different faces (give off different impressions) on different
stages (in different situations or different roles) with different others.
 To your mother, you may present yourself as the dutiful, obedient
daughter/son, which may not be how you present yourself to a friend.
 Doctor clinic view, an office view in an organization, Reception of private
schools (kindergarten)
Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel 1917-2011)

 U.S. sociologist, Ph.D. Harvard 1952

 “Studies in Ethnomethodology” (1967)
 Main intellectual influences:
 Emile Durkheim (social facts)
 Alfred Schutz (phenomenology)
 Talcott Parsons (idea of social trust)
 Studied jurors and common sense knowledge
 Placed primary importance on meanings that people give to everyday
situations and how define their own situations.
 Developed ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology
 Ethnomethodology is a mode of inquiry devoted to studying the practical
methods of common sense reasoning used by members of society in the conduct
of everyday life.
 The study of the way people make sense of their everyday surroundings.
 A social psychological approach concerned with individuals rather than roles
and structures
 Two main concept
 1. indexicality: nothing has been fixed and everything is dependent upon
context
 2. Reflexivity: if meaning are not set how we can communicate the answer is
Ethnomethodology
 Unlike symbolic interactionism, does not accept meaning “as is”
 focus on how meaning is created
 how do individuals use meanings to their direct actions.
 Deliberately disrupt social norms to find how it works, and how important.
 E.g. inter cast marriage.