Theory of Cognitive development

 Studied human cognition how people think and understand

 What is your opinion ?

Theory of Cognitive development

 Studied human cognition how people think and understand

 Swiss psychologist Piaget believed that
 children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little
scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world.
 As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge and adapt previously held ideas
to accommodate new information.
 Posits that human like all organism adapt their environment
 Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of mental development.
1. The Sensorimotor Stage
 Ages: Birth to 2 Years
 Stage of Human development in which individual experiences the world only through
their senses
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 For about the first two year of life the infant knows the world through five senses
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, looking and
listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them
 acquire knowledge through sensory experiences
 Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and
walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom
they interact.
2. The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years
 The level of human development at which individual first use language and
other symbols
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects and imagination.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from
the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to
think about things in very concrete terms.
 Cannot judge size weight or volume
 They can identify a toy as their favorite but can't explain what type of toys
they like.
 Play different role while playing The role of teacher or doctor while playing
3. The Concrete Operational Stage
 Ages: 7 to 11 Years
 Level of human development at which Individual sees casual connection to their
surrounding
 How and why things happen
 During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 begin to understand the concept of conservation;
 for example that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using logic or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle
 Children attach more than one symbol at a time
The Formal Operational Stage
 Ages: 12 and Up
 The level of human development in which individual think abstractly and critically
 The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic,
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information
 At this point, individual become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to
problems and think more scientifically about the world around them
 e,.g. What you like would be when you grow up may call teacher but most teenagers
can think abstractly and might reply I would like to job help other
 Social Process
 Social process are the fundamental ways in which members interact and
establish relationships in a society.

 How people establish relationship with others ?

 Social Process
 Social process are the fundamental ways in which members interact and
establish relationships in a society.
 At one level, sociology is the study of relationships: how they begin,
function, change and affect both individuals and the community.
 Maciver; ‘’Social process is the manner in which relations of the members
of a group tighter, acquire a distinctive character’’.
 Horton and Hunt; The term social process refers to the ‘’repetitive forms
of behaviour which are commonly found in social life’’
 Social Interaction

 Social interaction is the foundation of society.

 Without interaction there would be no group life.
 Thus it can be said that interaction is the basic social process.
 Social interaction is the reciprocal influence of human being through
contact.
 Eldredge & Merrill: Social interaction is the general process whereby two
or more persons are in meaningful contact as a result of which their
behaviour is modified however slightly.
 Interaction help in social relationship
 Some relationships operate smoothly; others are
overwhelmed by conflict and competition.
 We use the term social processes to describe the types
of interaction that go on in relationships.
 social processes that regularly occur in human
relationships: exchange, cooperation, competition,
and conflict.
 Exchange

 How can we fulfil our needs through exchange ?

 Exchange
 Exchange is voluntary interaction in which the parties trade tangible or
intangible benefits with the expectation that all parties will benefit
 A wide variety of social relationships include elements of exchange.
 In friendships and marriages, exchanges usually include intangibles such as
companionship, moral support, and a willingness to listen to the other’s
problems.
 Exchange is one of the most basic processes of social interaction.
 Almost all voluntary relationships involve the expectation of exchange.
 In marriage, for example, each partner is expected to provide affection and
sexual access to the other.
 An exchange relationship survives only if each party to the interaction
gets something out of it.
 This doesn’t mean that the rewards must be equal.
 Exchange is a trade: I give you something and you give me something else in
return.
Reciprocity

 the practice of exchanging things with others for mutual benefit,

 To maintain a good relation in society member of the society exchange
different things.
 Giving and taking of good and services without use of Money Without any
equal return expectation is called reciprocity
 An old way to maintain peace and friendship
 Or Sooner or later return equal value
 Types of Reciprocity
Types of Reciprocity
1. Generalized reciprocity
 Exercise on the basis of family
 Parents provide/bonds to provide foods and other need of life
 Sometime later return (look after their parent)
 As a result of socialization others are expecting some type
of behavoiur
2. Balance reciprocity:

 Short term in expectation of return

 Immediate or limited time
 Exchange of certain need objects
 Students exchange different things/material of their need
 Material/tools for different research projects, chemicals etc.
 In Agriculture societies people cooperate with neighbour in watering the
crops, plugging the field and harvesting and same thing they are expecting
later.
3. Negative reciprocity

 One self interest enjoying but No return

 Some friends like to eat different party and receiving gift
 but did not want to arrange party for friends
 and give gift to their friends and there are so many other thing in daily life