Mahrukh Hasnain 20ple01436 Roll No.

CA654616
Course: Laboratory Organization, Management and Safety Methods (6438)
Level: B.Ed. (2.5/4 Year) Semester: Spring, 2022
Credit Hours: 03

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
(Units 1-4)
Q.1 Write objectives of physics practical in Pakistan. (20)

The aims of physics laboratory at secondary school level are to enable

students to:

1.Develop the understanding of procedural knowledge.

2.Develop the ability to explain the processes and applications related to
science subjects.
3. Develop an ability to handle the apparatus carefully, and use the
resources wisely.
4. develop interest and motivation through laboratory which will lead to
development of positive attitude.
5. Apply skills and knowledge in real life situations.
6. Develop scientific understanding of the physical world.
7. An appreciation for the products and influences of science and technology.
8. Develop a respect for evidence, rationality and intellectual honesty.
9. Develop ability to work together.
10. Develop an ability to express themselves.

Physics Practical problem: the students will determine the position of center of mass/ gravity of
regular and irregular objects.
General Objective; to find out centre of gravity of regular and irregular objects Specific
Objectives:
Students will be able to
 Hang the regular object correctly
 Draw lines from centre of gravity.
 Find out centre of gravity
 Hang the irregular object at different points.
 Draw the line passing and touching at one point.
 Find the centre of gravity.
 Compare the centre of gravity for regular and irregular objects.

The state shall endeavour, in respect of the Muslims of Pakistan:

a. to make the teachings of the Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory and encourage
and facilitate the learning of Arabic language to secure correct and exact printing
and publishing of the Holy Quran;
 b. to promote unity amongst them and the observance of Islamic moral standards;

Provide basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing, education and medical
relief for all such citizens irrespective of sex, caste, creed or race as are permanently or
temporarily unable to earn their livelihood on account of infirmity, sickness or
unemployment;

Remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within minimum
possible period.

Enable the people of different areas, through education, training, agricultural and
industrial development and other methods, to participate fully in all the forms of national
activities including employment in the service of Pakistan;

The State shall discourage parochial, racial, tribal, sectarian and provincial prejudices
among the citizens.

Reduce disparity in the income and earnings of individuals, including persons in various
classes of the service of Pakistan.

Steps shall be taken to ensure full participation of women in all the spheres of national
life.

The vision is to transform Pakistani nation into an integrated, cohesive entity, that can
compete and stand up to the challenges of the 21 st Century. The Policy is formulated to realize
the vision of educationally well-developed, politically united, economically prosperous, morally
sound and spiritually elevated nation.

OBJECTIVES

To make the Qur’anic principles and Islamic practices as an integral part of curricula so
that the message of the Holy Quran could be disseminated in the process of education as well as
training. To educate and train the future generation of Pakistan as true practicing Muslims who
would be able to usher in the 21 st century and the next millennium with courage, confidence,
wisdom and tolerance.

To achieve universal primary education by using formal and informal techniques to

provide second opportunity to school drop-outs by establishing basic education community
schools all over the country.

To meet the basic learning needs of a child in terms of learning tools and contents.

To expand basic education qualitatively and quantitatively by providing the maximum

opportunities to every child of free access to education. The imbalances and disparities in the
system will be removed to enhance the access with the increased number of more middle and
secondary schools.

To ensure that all the boys and girls, desirous of entering secondary education, get their
basic right through the availability of the schools.

To lay emphasis on diversification of curricula so as to transform the system from

supply-oriented to demand oriented. To attract the educated youth to world-of-work from various
educational levels is one of the policy objectives so that they may become productive and useful
citizens and contribute positively as members of the society.

To make curriculum development a continuous process; and to make arrangements for

developing a uniform system of education.

To prepare the students for the world of work, as well as pursuit of professional and
specialized higher education.

To increase the effectiveness of the system by institutionalizing in-service training of

teachers, teacher trainers and educational administrators. To upgrade the quality of pre-service
teacher training programmes by introducing parallel programmes of longer duration at post-
secondary and post-degree levels.
 To develop a viable framework for policy, planning and development of teacher
education programmes, both in-service and pre-service.

To develop opportunities for technical and vocational education in the country for
producing trained manpower, commensurate with the needs of industry and economic
development goals.

To improve the quality of technical education so as to enhance the chances of

employment of Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) graduates by moving from a static,
supply-based system to a demand-driven system.

To popularize information technology among students of all ages and prepare them for
the next century. To emphasize different roles of computer as a learning tool in the classroom
learning about computers and learning to think and work with computers and to employ
information technology in planning and monitoring of educational programmes.

To encourage private sector to take a percentage of poor students for free education.

To institutionalize the process of monitoring and evaluation from the lowest to the
highest levels. To identify indicators for different components of policy, in terms of quality and
quantity and to adopt corrective measures during the process of implementation.

To achieve excellence in different fields of higher education by introducing new

disciplines/emerging sciences in the universities, and transform selected disciplines into centres
of advanced studies, research and extension.

To upgrade the quality of higher education by bringing teaching, learning and research
process in line with international standards.
Physics at intermediate level provides students with a contemporary and coherent
understanding of energy, matter, and their interrelationship. It focuses on investigating
natural phenomena and then applying patterns, models, problem solving techniques,
principles, theories and laws to explain the physical behaviour of the universe. It uses an
understanding of simple system to make predictions about a range of objects from
subatomic particles to the entire universe and aims to reveal the simplicity underlying
complexity.
Physics at intermediate level draws and builds on the knowledge and
understanding, skills, values and attitudes developed in high school. It further develops
students’ understanding of science as a continually developing body of knowledge, the inter
disciplinary nature of science, the role of science in deciding between competing theories,
the provisional nature of scientific explanations and the complex interrelationship between
evidence, ideas and impact of science on society.
It is expected that students studying physics will apply investigations and problem
solving skills, effectively communicate the theoretical concepts, and appreciate the
contribution that the study of physics makes to our understanding of the world.
The broad aims of the Physics syllabus are to:
1. inculcate among the students the habit of scientific and rational thinking and an attitude to
search for order and symmetry in diverse phenomena of nature and thereby to appreciate
the supreme wisdom and creative powers of the creator;
2. lay a foundation for research and development by stimulating interest and developing
attitudes relevant to scientific methods;
3. equip the students with the knowledge and understanding of concepts rather than the ability
to remember facts so that they may have a reasonably comprehensive and complete grasp
of principles of physics;
4. develop observational skills and relate the student’s knowledge of concepts to quantitative
measurements by including a well-balanced practical course;
5. make it possible for the students to acquire knowledge, skills, working methods and ways
of expression which will contribute to an all round development of individual student;
6. promote an awareness that the application of science may be both beneficial and
detrimental to the individual, the community and the environment.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES
On the completion of the course the student should be able to:
1. acquire the knowledge and understanding of physical concepts rather than the ability to
remember facts;
2. develop the habit of scientific and rational thinking and an attitude to search order and
symmetry in apparently diverse phenomena of nature;
3. understand and interpret scientific information presented in verbal, mathematical or
graphical form and to translate such information from one form to another;
4. describe physical phenomena in terms of models, laws and principles;
5. recognize the operation of the scientific principles in established practical applications to
apply acquired knowledge, experience and skills to new situations in a novel manner;
6. develop observational skills, confidence in using scientific equipment and relate the
knowledge of scientific concepts to quantitative and physical measurement;
7. understand and appreciate the inter relationship and balance that exists in nature, the
problems associated with the over exploitation of the environmental resources and
disturbance because of the human activities in the ecological balance, thus taking care of
the environment;
8. acquire knowledge, skills, working methods and ways of expression which will reflect on
all round development of the students’ attitudes towards scientific thinking and its
applications;
9. help the students feel that the advancement in physics and its extended applications are
essential for the healthy growth of national economy and to appreciate that physics is a
major part of the modern world;
10. develop attitudes such as concern for accuracy and precision, objectivity, and enquiry.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The specific objectives of the intermediate level physics course are as follows:

A. Knowledge and understanding

Students should be able to recall and show understanding of:
1. Physics terminology, definitions and conventions.
2. Selected factual knowledge and phenomena.
3. Selected experimental methods and related practical techniques.
4. Concepts, laws and models.
5. Relevant applications of physics in society and everyday life.
B. Practical skills
Students should be able to:
1. Plan and execute experiments.
2. Handle scientific equipment safely and to the appropriate limit of accuracy.
3. Observe, analyze and present experimental results accurately.
4. Handle simple treatment of errors.

C. Application
Students should be able to:
1. Identify problems in a given situation.
2. Apply the knowledge of physics in problem solving and experimental
investigation using quantitative, numerical, theoretical and practical techniques.
D. Communication skills
Students should be able to:
1. Compile clear and concise accounts of experimental work and theoretical
treatments.
2. Interpret the recorded data.
3. Use modes to explain phenomena and discuss issues relating to the social,
economic, environmental and technological implications of physics.

E. Attitudes
Students should acquire
1. Inquisitiveness and interest in their study of physics.
2. An appreciation of the role of experimental work in the field of science.
3. An objective attitude towards judgment of evidence.
4. Concern for accuracy and precision.
5. Awareness of contribution of physics to society and the consequences of
application of physics to meet human needs.
6. CONTENTS AND SCOPE OF PHYSICS SYLLABUS
7.
8.
CONTENT
SCOPE
1. Measurements (13 periods)
What is Physics? Introduction to Physics (Brief account only)

Physical quantities and SI units All physical quantities understood as consisting of a

numerical magnitude and units.
Base units: mass, length, time, current, temperature,
luminous intensity and amount of substance in terms of
number of particles, supplementary units (radian and
steradian), other units, use of standard form/scientific
notation and prefixes. Use of conventions for indicating
units as set out in the S.I units.

Error and uncertainties
Error and uncertainties, systematic and random errors,
significant figures, distinction between precision and
accuracy, assessment of uncertainty in a derived quantity.
Note:- Quoting answers with correct scientific notation,
number of significant figures and units in all numerical
and practical work be made compulsory.

Dimensions of physical quantities Use of dimensions and units to check homogeneity of

physical equations and to derive possible formulae in
simple cases.

2. Vectors and Equilibrium (13 periods)

Vectors Rectangular co-ordinate system. Vectors: Scalars:
Magnitude of vector equal vectors negative of vector
Unit vector, null vector, position vector. Rule of vector
addition by rectangular components. The scalar product
of two vectors and its characteristics. The vector product
of two vectors and its characteristics.

Equilibrium Equilibrium of forces. Torque and equilibrium of

torques.

3. Motion and Force (10 periods)

Displacement Definition and illustration with diagram.

Velocity Definition and illustration of velocity, average velocity

and instantaneous velocity.

Acceleration Definition and illustration of acceleration, average

acceleration and instantaneous acceleration. Velocity-
time graph for constant direction, significance of area
under velocity-time graph.

Equations of motion Summarized review of equation of uniformly accelerated


Force, momentum and impulse
motion.
Summarized review of Newton’s laws of motion.
Newton’s 2nd law of motion in terms of momentum.
Impulse. Law of conservation of momentum. Elastic
collisions in one dimension with special cases. Force due
to water flow, momentum and explosive forces. Rocket
propulsion (simple treatment)

Projectile Projectile motion in non-resistive medium. Derivation of

time of flight, maximum height and horizontal range.
Application to ballistic missiles.

4. Work, Power and Energy (11 periods)

Work done by a constant force Work as a scalar product of force and displacement.
Work done in gravitational field near earth’s surface.

Work done by a variable force Work as area under force displacement graph.

Power Power as a scalar product of force and velocity, units,

examples from every day life.

Energy Brief account of kinetic Energy and Potential Energy.

Work-energy principle. Derivation of expression for
absolute potential energy. Escape velocity.

Interconversion of Potential and Interconversion of Potential and Kinetic energies in a

Kinetic energies resistive medium.

Conservation of energy Conservation of energy with examples from everyday

life.
Non conventional Energy
Sources Energy from the tides, energy from waves, solar energy,
solar power and intensity at earth’s surface, energy from
Biomass, energy from waste products, geo-thermal
including aquifers and geysers (descriptive introduction)

5. Circular Motion (11 periods)

Angular motion Angular displacement, radian, the relationship s = rθ,
angular velocity, angular acceleration, relation between
linear velocity and angular velocity.
Equations of angular motion.
2 2
Centripetal acceleration and force
v mv
Derivation and use of ac= rω = r , Fc =
2 mr ω = r
2

Angular momentum Definition of angular momentum as an analogue of linear

 motion. Conservation of angular momentum with
examples.
n
Moment of Inertia
Descriptive treatment as I =
∑ i=1¿ mi r2i ¿
Moment of Inertia of various bodies (rod, disc, sphere,
and hoop), no derivation.

Rotational Kinetic energy Rotational Kinetic energy of a disc and of a hoop on an

inclined plane.

Artificial satellites. Orbital Speed Simple introduction, weightlessness in satellites, gravity

free system. (Descriptive only), artificial gravity, orbital
velocity, geo-stationary orbits, communication satellites
and their applications. Simple description of Einstein’s
view of gravitation.

Simple Harmonic motion Experimental, analytical, graphical treatments and simple

examples of motion of projection of circular motion on
2
its diameter, derivation of a = −ω x. Mass attached to a
spring. Simple pendulum. Amplitude, period, frequency,
2
phase recognition and use of a = −ω x. Knowledge and
use of solutions in the form of x = xo Cos ω t or
y = yo sin ω t
Energy conservation in S.H.M
Conservation of kinetic energy and potential energy in
S.H.M.
Free and forced oscillations
Free and forced oscillations treated qualitatively,
frequency response, sharpness of resonance treated
qualitatively, application of damped oscillations,
damping in car suspension system.

8. Waves (14 periods)

Propagation of waves Review of generation and propagation of waves. Nature
of motions in transverse and longitudinal progressive
waves, wave length, frequency and velocity of wave,
Derivation of v= fλ

Speed of sound in air Newton’s formula, Laplace correction, effect of pressure,

density and temperature on speed of sound in air.
V
Derivation of V = 0 + 0.61t.

Superposition of waves Interference and beats. Illustration of these phenomena

with the help of sound waves.
Stationary waves Reflection of waves, a graphical and experimental
approach is sufficient, stationary waves in strings.
Location of nodes and anti-nodes. Vibrating air columns.

Modes of vibration of strings. Modes of vibration of strings and use of L= nλ /2.

Doppler’s effect Doppler’s effect. Proof of the relationship between

apparent frequency and original frequency for the
relative motion between the source and observer on the
same straight line in the case of sound. Applications in
radar. Sonar, astronomy, satellites and radar speed.

9. Physical Optics (17 periods)

Interference Concept of wavefronts. Huygen’s principle. Interference.
Young’s double slit experiment. Conditions for
detectable interference. Calculation of wave length from
fringe spacing. Colour patterns in thin films. Newton’s
rings. Michelson interferometer and its uses.

Diffraction Simple phenomenon and their qualitative explanation.

Single slit diffraction. Diffraction grating, derivation of
angular position of first minimum. Derivation and use of
d sin Ө = nλ (plane grating normal incidence).
Diffraction of X-rays through crystals and its uses,
Bragg’s equation.
Polarization
Polarization as a phenomenon associated with transverse
waves. Polarization produced by Polaroids. Qualitative
effect of rotation of Polaroid. Production and detection of
plane polarized light.

10. Optical Instruments (16 periods)

Magnifying power and resolving Least distance of distinct vision, magnifying power and
power of optical instruments resolving powers of simple microscope. Compound
microscope and astronomical telescope.

Spectrometer Description of spectrometer explaining the function of its

various parts, details of mechanical adjustment not
required.

Speed of light Michelson rotating mirror method.

Optical fibre systems Introduction of optical fibers, fibre optic principles- (i)
total internal refraction. (ii) continuous refraction. Types
of optical fibers, signal transmission, conversion to sound
(descriptive treatment: only), losses of power.
11. Heat and Thermodynamics (22 periods)
Kinetic theory of gases Postulates of kinetic theory of gases, derivation of
pressure of gas, interpretation of temperature and
derivation of gas laws on the basis of kinetic theory.
First law of Thermodynamics Internal energy, work and heat, familiarity with a variety
of energy conversions in practical devices and processes.
Isothermal and adiabatic processes. Molar specific heats
of gas at constant pressure Cp and at constant volume Cv .
Application of first law to derive Cp - Cv =R

Second law of Thermodynamics Reversible and irreversible cycle. Heat engine, statement
of second law of thermodynamics. Carnot Theorem,
Thermodynamic Scale of temperature.
Petrol Engine and Diesel engine (Simple Description).

Entropy ΔQ
±
Explanation of entropy. Change of entropy ∆S = T
Entropy and 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.
Environmental crisis as an entropy crisis.
 Q.2 Why inspection and maintenance of laboratories and equipment is necessary.
(20)
Whether you’re looking to stay within your budgets or you’re hoping to ensure that
experiments run effectively and without a hitch, your first step should always be
equipment maintenance.

Without a spotless lab in which to work, the risk of cross-contamination is likely

making good housekeeping almost as important to your work as the study itself.
And, the benefits of good lab maintenance don’t end there. Equipment is often one
of the biggest outlays in a lab so taking adequate care of what you have (therefore
preventing unnecessary re-purchases) is an added bonus.

If you know that you’ve been putting less time and consideration into lab
maintenance than you should then take a look at our Lab Maintenance 101
checklist and download our useful guide.

How to clean laboratory equipment

 
General Cleaning
Lab cleanliness is one of the easiest, most affordable and most obvious ways to
keep your lab in great shape but it’s surprisingly more overlooked than you may
think.

It’s advisable to:

 Carry out a daily wipe down of all equipment exteriors

 Carry out a weekly deep clean of all equipment
 Carry out a regular deep clean of microscopes using a 70:30 mixture of ether
and alcohol – this ensures that they are sufficiently clean to yield most
accurate results
 Consult the manual or lab manager on any specific processes for cleaning
demanding equipment. Haematology machines, for example, typically
require a 6 monthly check by an engineer, a weekly analyser surface clean
and an HC control check monthly.
 Consider outsourcing cleaning of challenging items to a qualified
professional; third party equipment maintenance and cleaning can be a cost-
effective alternative.
Following these simple cleaning procedures will keep equipment in peak condition
so that your lab runs without a hitch. Exposed surfaces should be wiped down on a
daily basis, while it’s also a good idea to schedule in a deep clean once a week.

Calibration
Failure to regularly calibrate equipment can lead to a lack of accuracy with your
data, an oversight which could end up bringing entire experiments to a halt.
Additionally, proper calibration can also improve lab safety wherever hazardous
chemicals are used. As a result, it’s imperative that the process is conducted on a
consistent basis. There are various services available to ensure your equipment is
regularly calibrated and done so to the right standard.

It’s advisable to:

 Carry out an inventory of your equipment and decide which is most suitable
for each item – from basic preventative maintenance to more advanced
accuracy verification.
 Regularly calibrate equipment for ongoing preventative maintenance that
will keep your lab in optimal condition.
Repairs
From time to time, lab items will wear out and stop working. But, rather than
immediately disposing of faulty equipment, take the time to see if parts could be
replaced or items can be repaired instead.

You may be surprised by how likely it is that equipment can be updated and
maintained instead of merely disposed of.

Particularly with larger items, repairing and replacing parts can be an effective way
to increase lifespan and keep down costs. Due to the nature of the items, some
parts will wear quicker than others but, when adequately managed, these can be
replaced in time to prevent problems or burnout. Consider centrifuges, filtration
systems and microscope lenses: each of these can be simply replaced without the
need to dispose of the entire machine.

Refurbishment
For faulty equipment, repairing can be invaluable but if your items still work (just
not as smoothly as before) refurbishment could hold the key. If you’re looking to
refurbish older items of equipment, then consider carrying out the following
process:
 1. Take the entire piece of equipment apart
2. Fully clean each component
3. Polish components where necessary
4. Re-lubricate any moving parts
5. If parts are showing signs of wear and tear, consider replacing them at this
preventative stage
6. Put the equipment back together
Of course, you’ll need to know a thing or two about the items you’re working with to
carry out the above procedure, but this can help items return to good as new.

Used Lab Equipment and Quality

Replacements
There will undoubtedly be times when no matter how well you’ve completed your
daily cleans, or carried out regular calibration or even repaired and refurbished
older items, you will need to purchase replacements.

It can be tempting to take what initially looks like the economical route and scrimp
on equipment by choosing the less expensive model. Unfortunately, this offers a
false economy: “buy cheap, pay twice” as the old adage goes. The parts in cheaper
items of equipment are often more prone to wear and tear and therefore less likely
to go the distance. Therefore, choosing high-quality lab equipment over less
expensive alternatives usually offers enhanced durability, particularly for items of
equipment that are used regularly.
Consider the following:


o High-quality lab equipment is often easier to find parts for
o It’s usually a more straightforward process to clean and refurbish high-
quality items
o If you only intend to use the item for a short period of time or your
budget is very tight, it could be worth looking into hiring good-quality
equipment rather than purchasing the cheaper equivalents

Laboratory equipment maintenance

checklist
 
Clean up every day
 
It’s a good idea to keep a basic housekeeping checklist for the laboratory to remind
staff of which duties need to be taken care of on a daily basis, such as clearing and
cleaning countertops, sweeping floors and sanitising the most common
touchpoints of the lab.

 
Check personal protective equipment
The condition and quality of PPE before beginning any project must be maintained,
so it’s essential to stress this. Have your staff regularly check eye and face
protection, gloves, footwear and hearing conservation equipment for any wear and
tear.

Restock handwashing stations

Handwashing sinks must be kept clean, while disinfectant soap dispensers and
towels should be within easy reach. If the sink becomes clogged, then the issue
must be immediately dealt with to reduce the risk of backup and contamination.

Maintain emergency stations

Maintain emergency eyewash and shower stations according to the given
regulations and take the time to activate components in all stations several times a
week to ensure proper operation. Arrange for regular station inspection by
qualified technicians.
Clean all lab equipment
Before beginning a project, be sure to check the required equipment for their
cleanliness. Upon finishing the project, equipment must be cleaned according to
established standards.

Inventory the contents of refrigerators and freezers

It’s important to maintain an inventory of any items that require storage in
refrigerators and freezers and include important information on the contents’
origin and expiration dates. Regular rotation makes inventory maintenance and
timely disposal of expired items a lot easier.

Use the proper glass cleaning techniques

A lab washer-disinfector that has hot-air drying capabilities will be able to take on
routine glassware cleaning. Additionally, ensure your staff are up to speed on the
different manual techniques and products for properly washing glassware items
such as beakers, flasks, pipettes and funnels.

Broken glass disposal

Designate a rubbish bin for broken glass and materials with sharp edges and keep
it in a location all staff can easily reach. Don’t allow the bin to reach capacity; when
the bin is half-full, dispose of its contents.

Inspect emergency equipment

Schedule regular inspections of your lab’s fire safety and sprinkler systems. First
aids kits should be kept in easily reachable areas, while fire extinguishers need to
be regularly checked to ensure they’re fully charged and properly stored.

General Warning
 
The sign is a broad reminder that the area you’re working in is likely to contain
hazards and risks and you should work accordingly.

 
Flammable Material
 
This sign commonly occurs in labs and means that flammable materials are likely to
be present.

 
Toxic Material
 
You’ll find this sign-in areas where substances are held that could prove harmful to
humans if they are inhaled, ingested or they come into contact with skin.

 
Low Temperature
 
The symbol denotes low temperature or cryogenic hazards.

 
Non-Ionising Radiation
 
You’ll find this symbol in areas where non-ionising radiation is present.

 
Biohazard
 
Items in this area have likely been in contact with biohazardous materials and
therefore run the risk of being contaminated.
 
Oxidising Material
 
Oxidising materials such as bromine, chlorates, nitrates, perchloric acid and
peroxides.

 
Ionising Radiation
 
Ionising radiation (in other words, radiation that has enough energy to liberate
electrons from atoms or molecules and ionise them) is present.

 
Laser Beam Hazard
 
The sign denotes the presence of laser beams.

 
UV Light Hazard
 
Ultraviolet light is present.
 
Explosive Material Hazard
 
This symbol denotes that chemicals with explosive properties are present in the
area including unstable explosives that can cause dangerous chemical reactions.

Q.3 Write materials and procedure for determination of weight of an

unknown object by using principle of moment. (20)

Apparatus required:

A metre scale, a knife edge, slotted weights, thread

Procedure:

i.                     A metre scale is supported at its centre of gravity by a knife edge or

suspended by using a thread tied to its centre so that the scale is in the horizontal
position. Ensure that the scale is in equilibrium position.

ii.                     A known weight W2 and an unknown weight W1 are suspended from to

either side of the the scale using the weight hangers.

iii.                     Fix the position of one weight hanger and adjust the position of the
second weight hanger such that the scale is in equilibrium.

iv.                     Measure the distance d1 and d2 of the two weight hangers from the centre
of the scale accurately.

v.                     The experiment is repeated for different positions of the unknown weight.

Measure the distances. The reading are tabulated as follows:

 
Observation:

Calculations:

Moment of a force can be calculated using the formula

Moment of the force = Force x distance

Clock wise moment by unknown weight = W1 × d1

Anticlockwise moment by known weight = W2 × d2

W1 × d1= W2 × d2

w1 w2
Unknown weight = W1= [ W2 × d2 ] /d1

Result:

Using the principle of moments, the weight of the unknown body W 1 = ……. Kg
Wt.

Q.4 Theory and practical have no relationship in Pakistani schools. Give

comments in favour or in opposition to this proposition. (20)

Theories are academic models or frameworks that are developed to help explain or predict
certain phenomena. They are generally discipline specific and often build upon or even
contradict one another. • Practice describes the application of knowledge or skills in a given
situation. It might involve describing experiences you’ve had, explaining the way you’ve
created or designed something, or imagining what might happen in a real-life situation.
The connection between practice and theory is important as it demonstrates your ability to
use evidence to increase your understanding of key concepts, justify your decision making,
and inform future practice. The strength of this theory-practice connection also contributes
to the evidence of your critical thinking and growth. Ultimately, linking theory and
practice shows that you understand the connections between what you are learning at
university and how that knowledge is applied in the real-world.

he student teachers lack the energy,

imagination or determination to create
change and inevitably succumb
to the practices of the status quo[45].
Tom[47] has given the opposite
comments that “although teaching is a
deeply
intellectual enterprise, in both its
pedagogy and its content, teaching
also is a fundamentally practical
activity.”
The student teachers lack the energy, imagination or determination to
create change and inevitably succumb to the practices of the status quo[45].
Tom[47] has given the opposite comments that “although teaching is a deeply
intellectual enterprise, in both its pedagogy and its content, teaching
also is a fundamentally practical activity.” also acknowledged a widely-
held concern that “one of the biggest dangers we face is
preparing teachers who know theory and know nothing about practice.”
Darling-Hammond[47] viewed about the teacher education that
there should be a “tight coherence and
integration among courses and between course work and clinical
work using pedagogies that link theory and
practice” (p. 300). She further suggested "extended clinical
experiences" with at least thirty weeks supervised
practicum experience and student teaching opportunities in each
teacher training program. This extended practicum
experience allow the student teachers to grow roots on their
professional practice especially in the context of when
 they are going to learn to teach through learner centered ways. A
complex process of learning to teach is
manageable only through the integration of theoretical knowledge
and professional practice. to acquire skills
through the coherence of theoretical knowledge and professional
practice is necessary for developing competent
teachers. It described three phase pedagogical framework as essential
for teacher education:

1. Studying about skills,

2. Observing and trying out skills under simulated and actual classroom
conditions,
3. Comparing and elaborating skills in classrooms.

It is considerably disquieting to note

that, as far back as the 1920s,
Dewey[14] expressed similar
concerns.
Others suggested that separating
theory from practice created a false
dichotomy and that teaching is a
profession in
which theory is embedded in and
inseparable from practice[6; 33]. Lenz
Taguchi[33, p. 278], for example, argued
that
because theories in education are
constituted by and perpetually
reconstituted as “collectively and
culturally-specific
materialized meaning-making,” it is
not possible to determine where
theory ends and practice begins.
Despite the
diversity of opinions about theory-
practice in teacher education, it is
widely perceived as inherently
problematic in
pre-service programs.
1.2. Objectives of the Study
The following were the objectives of
the study;
1. To explore the perceptions of
student teachers and teacher
educators about the application of
theory into
practice in science teacher education.
2. To explore the perceptions of
student teachers and teacher educators
about the gaps between theory and
practice
in science teacher education.
3. To develop strategies through
the perceptions of student teachers
and teacher educators for bridging
the gaps
between theory and practice in science
teacher education.
2
It is considerably disquieting to note that, as far back as the 1920s,
Dewey[14] expressed similar concerns.
Others suggested that separating theory from practice created a false
dichotomy and that teaching is a profession in
which theory is embedded in and inseparable from practice[6; 33]. Lenz
Taguchi[33, p. 278], for example, argued that
because theories in education are constituted by and perpetually reconstituted
as “collectively and culturally-specific
materialized meaning-making,” it is not possible to determine where
theory ends and practice begins. Despite the
diversity of opinions about theory-practice in teacher education, it is widely
perceived as inherently problematic in
pre-service programs.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

The following were the objectives of the study;
1. To explore the perceptions of student teachers and teacher educators
about the application of theory into
practice in science teacher education.
2. To explore the perceptions of student teachers and teacher educators about
the gaps between theory and practice
in science teacher education.
3. To develop strategies through the perceptions of student teachers and
teacher educators for bridging the gaps
between theory and practice in science teacher education.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Methodology
Qualitative approach with
concurrent explanatory strategy was
adopted to collect the data. All the
student
teachers enrolled in B.Ed elementary
one year program, organized under the
umbrella of the university of
education
Lahore, were considered as the
population of the study. There were
two streams of the training institutions
in which the
program was being offered one in the
GCETs and other one was the
university of education Lahore
campuses. Cluster
random with purposive sampling
technique was used to select the
sample of the study as the selection of
participants
through this technique has been
considered as a key decision in
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Methodology
Qualitative approach with concurrent explanatory strategy was adopted
to collect the data. All the student
teachers enrolled in B.Ed elementary one year program, organized under the
umbrella of the university of education
Lahore, were considered as the population of the study. There were two
streams of the training institutions in which the
program was being offered one in the GCETs and other one was the
university of education Lahore campuses. Cluster
random with purposive sampling technique was used to select the sample of
the study as the selection of participants
through this technique has been considered as a key decision in qualitative
research[10]. According to Gay, Mills and
Airasian[17], "Purposive sampling is the process of selecting a sample that is
believed to be representative of a given
population” (p.113). To Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh and Sorensen[2], qualitative
researchers tend to use purposive samples
because it is believed “to be sufficient to provide maximum insight and
understanding of what they are studying” [p.
472]. We, the researchers, contacted personally with the student
teachers from two training institutions, selected
through cluster random technique to participate in the focus group
discussions during the practicum session. At the end
of practicum session, held in April and May 2014, twenty student teachers
agreed to participate voluntarily. Twenty
teacher educators from different training institutions were contacted
through email for their participation in the
interview. However, sixteen teacher educators agreed to participate when
they were contacted for time schedule. The
reasons behind not participating included their family matters, workload and
lack of time.
 2.2. Data Collection and Analysis
In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect data
from teacher educators and student
teachers respectively. The focus group discussions and interviews were
conducted at the end of practicum session.
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Bilal et al., 2016
Interviews were conducted personally as well as through the phone records,
electronic and internet sources, i.
e. Skype, Emo and Webber, whatever was possible. It was due to
broad geographical area where the participants
were spread[16]. Notes were taken w. r. t. the participants' codes and both
the verbatim as well as the paraphrased
were used to record the data. It is easy for a researcher to understand the
experiences of other people through the i-
depth interviews[43]. Open ended questions were used in the interviews
in a conversational way between the
researcher and the interviewees.
The data were reduced into the manageable chunks in which the meaning and
insight are made possible to the
words and actions of the participants [41]. The interviews were filled
and recorded in the first phase and the
interviews were given the numbers according to each participant. The
interviews were read and coded accordingly.
the major categories were developed in the light of comparing and
contrasting individual codes. The broad
categories were converted into major themes through a categorical
analysis[8].
Focus group discussion, " A group conversation with a purpose" [p. 104]
[36], were managed with two groups
from two training institutions. It can be organized and developed by
the researcher through a discussion of
purposefully selected group of participants[31]. Student teachers were
contacted to participate voluntarily in the focus
group discussions. A group was comprised of ten student teachers however,
the number of participants decreases to
8 student teachers due to absent students at some times. data were
recorded through video tape recorder and the
same procedure was adopted to analyse the data as in the case of interviews.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Application of Theory into Practice

In response to the research question "How do student teachers succeed
to put into practice the theoretical
knowledge, received through the course content in their professional
practice?" the student teachers and teacher
educators expressed the following views:
A consensus among the student teachers was observed for the
application of lesson planning and
organization. They also identified some problems to integrate theoretical
and practical aspects. However, the
student teachers said that they were able to present the lesson according to
their lesson planning and they performed
it with confidence. Some student teachers found it easy to enter the school
and to apply the concepts they received
through their course content. However, they expressed their concerns
about workload and mistakes, they made in
their classroom teaching. The student teachers highlighted the workload
and time management issues in their
teaching practice. They viewed about the eventful nature of the teaching
practice and the pressure of their evaluation
by their supervising staff. They acknowledged their low performance in
the evaluation techniques in the light of
theoretical concepts.
The teacher educators perceived the teaching practice as an incomplete
and immature process for the
preparation of future professional teachers. However, they perceived it
as a beginning of the professional
development of student teachers through which they experience a variety of
practical actions. They acknowledged
the positive impacts of teaching practice for building confidence,
planning of lessons, dealing with unfamiliar
problems of students' behaviour, instructional process and managing learning
activities for students in the classroom
and using questioning techniques for students' evaluation. They also
explored the deficiencies of using different
methods and techniques of teaching, technology use, management skills
in classroom teaching, organization and
management of co-curricular activities and poor level of evaluation process.

3.2. Challenges and Problems in Teaching Practice

The responses of student teachers and teacher educators regarding the
question; "What challenges and
problems are there in teacher education regarding the application of
theoretical knowledge in professional practice?"
have been given as under:
They indicated the problems in the context of school environment, their
confidence level, coordination
between school and campus, availability of learning materials, students'
attitude and assessment of student teachers
during teaching practice. Some of student teachers also expressed their views
about the poor nature of administration
and supervision in schools. They identified low level of students' quality in
the classrooms, problems related to the
adequate time table with poor concepts of learning about teaching. Some
participants also expressed their concern
over the mismanagement of the abilities of adequate teachers in the
specific fields, the use of school resources and
application of technology materials in the classrooms.
Teacher educators pointed out different aspects of teaching practice with
different types of problems and
challenges for student teachers. They differentiated among the problems
lying in theoretical knowledge and teaching
practice. They perceived that theoretical component dominated the
training program. They interestingly professed
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J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 6(12)117-126, 2016
that the teaching practice focussed on the activities related to the theoretical
work. They highlighted the significant
role of mentor teachers and supervisor teachers for the effectiveness of
teaching practice.
The teacher educators categorically, specified the hurdles in the
successful planning and organizing of the
teaching practice. They recognized high pressure on the student teachers for
their performance in the instructional
activities rather than their overall professional development.

3.3. Gaps between Theory and Practice in Teacher Education

The analysis of focus group discussion of student teachers and interviews of
teacher educators regarding the
question "What are the gaps between theoretical knowledge and
professional practice in teacher education?" has
been given as under:
Student teachers admitted that a gap existed between theoretical knowledge
and professional practice w. r. t.
the relationship between practical training and educational theory. They
confessed that the teaching practice was a
new experience for them and it was seemed totally different of their
pre-established concepts. To integrate the
theoretical concepts with real world situation was not less than a challenge
for them. They acknowledged that they
came with full passion to apply the concepts, they received regarding the
different areas of theoretical aspects i.e.
lesson planning, instructional process, evaluation techniques,
management and organization of the classroom,
application of different teaching methods according to the lesson content
and use of advanced technologies and
audio visual aids in the classroom. However, they were bound to follow the
routines of the school. The students and
teachers were not ready to cooperate in applying the theoretical
concepts which they encountered as something
different to the course objectives.
When teacher educators were asked about the similarities and differences
in theory and practice in teacher
education program, they acknowledged the importance of the problem and
identified the areas of similarities and
differences. They considered it the most important problem to align the
teacher education program with its
objectives. They made it clear that the valuable objective of the program is to
prepare the future teachers with strong
knowledge base, skills and competencies. This objective is essential to
achieve the goals of education for students
and to prove themselves as successful professionals. They also added the
importance of teaching practice in teacher
education program but also expressed their concern about its poor quality in
the preparation of future teachers.
The interviewee saw it necessary to expand duration of teaching
practice to make it more valuable and
suitable for developing skills in student teachers. They focussed about the
continuous concept of the integration of
theoretical knowledge and professional practice through the availability
of laboratory schools as a necessary
concept. They identified that the gaps between theoretical knowledge
and professional practice begin with the
concept of the separation of the programme in to two components of
theoretical and practical. They discussed about
the integration of theoretical and practical components through the easy
access of student teachers to the classrooms.

3.4. Strategies to Fill the Gaps

The analysis of focus group discussion of student teachers and interviews of
teacher educators regarding the
question "What are the strategies to fill the gaps between theoretical
knowledge and professional practice in teacher
education?" are given as under;
Student teachers and teacher educators were asked "What strategies are
necessary to fill the gaps in the sense
of necessary conditions at teacher education institutions and practice
schools as well as the necessary changes
required?" Different themes, emerged through their perceptions, have
been elaborated according to the following
major aspects.

1. Organizational strategies
2. Instructional strategies
3. Support strategies
4. Technology integration in the classroom instruction
5. Supervision and assessment of student teachers

3.4.1. Organizational Strategies

Student teachers made clear reservations about the poor level of organization
of the teaching practice with its
meager importance by the senior school teachers as well as by the school
administrators. They apparently discussed
about it a clear result of poor level of coordination among schools and
teacher education institutions. They also
identified the situation as a result of poor concept of incentives associated
with school teachers and administrators.
They recognized the mismanagement of school teachers and principals for
the organization of teaching practice for
its objectives, timings, capital and human resources, role of teachers and
administrators.
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Bilal et al., 2016
Teacher educators also identified the poor level of cooperation and
coordination among school teachers and
teacher educators. They considered it important to make the planned
organization of practical component of teacher
education program. They recognized the efforts made by the teacher
education institutions to earn the cooperation of
school teachers. However, they acknowledged the poor passion of
school teachers towards the pre-organized
workshops for teaching practice at training institutions.

3.4.2. Instructional Strategies

Student teachers and teacher educators gave important arguments about the
instructional activities as a major
portion of the teaching practice. The student teachers and teacher
educators stressed the tasks and roles to be
experienced by the student teachers while teaching in the classroom.
The teaching practice is centered on the
teaching and learning process of students in the classrooms.
Student teachers acknowledged the complex nature of their learning as a
teacher. They demanded for full
opportunities to be provided according to their personal constructs and
beliefs. They well thought out the school
environment as an obstacle for their actions.
Student teachers also expressed their views about their focus on
classroom presentations according to the
lesson planning. Whereas the practical nature of classroom instruction
involved different tasks within the given
period of time.
Teacher educators also accredited the limited nature of activities of student
teachers in the classroom rather
than to bring about all the responsibilities as a professional teacher.

3.4.3. Support Strategies

The student teachers and teacher educators were asked about "What strategies
are necessary to fill the gaps in
the context of support provided to the student teachers during teaching
practice?" Two aspects emerged through
their perceptions in the context of support strategies.

1. Initial support at beginning of the teaching practice

2. Continuous support during the teaching practice

3.4.4. Initial Support

Student teachers alleged the beginning of teaching practice as a complex task
for them as they were unaware
of the school circumstances, principles, rules and routines. Therefore they
expected to seek help and support by the
senior teachers as well as by their teacher educators or supervisors.
Group discussions, induction seminars,
introductory workshops and meeting with mentors were identified as
remarkable tasks in the initial support
programs of student teachers.
The student teachers suggested the introduction of available and accessible
resources at schools through the
introductory workshops. It might be helpful for them to make decisions with
freedom to use the necessary materials
for their actions in the classroom teaching as well as for their professional
responsibilities in the school.

3.4.5. Support during Teaching Practice

The Student teachers professed the limited nature of the support by the
school teachers with their poor
theoretical concepts necessary for becoming successful practitioners.

i. Technology integration in the classroom

The student teachers as well as the teacher educators perceived
importance of computers especially in the
context of teacher education program with introducing new concepts for
the production of newly qualified
professionals.
Teacher educators also marked the poor level of the use of computers in the
classroom by the student teachers
during their teaching practice. However, they perceived it necessary for
student teachers to experience the ways of
computer assisted learning in the classroom and they desired for the

concept of laboratory school . The following necessary areas were

identified by the student teachers and teacher educators for computer
applications in the classroom;
1. Developing lesson plans
2. Developing pictures, models, maps and spread sheets
3. Using computers for co-curricular activities
4. Developing contents ad slides for instructional activities
5. Development of question items and tests
6. Developing interest through motion pictures and films
Supervision and assessment of teaching practice
Student teachers and teacher educators identified different aspects of
weaknesses and challenges of the
assessment process. The teacher educators also acknowledged the
improvement of the situation in the context of
assessment and supervision of the student teachers during teaching
practice. They however, pointed out the poor
level of cooperation of school based mentors to complete the continuous
nature of assessment.
In summary, the following themes were of major importance in the context
of issues, problems in teaching
practice as well as to fill the gaps between theoretical knowledge and
professional practice ;
• Co-ordination among schools and teacher education institutions
• Training of school teachers through the teacher education institutions
• Job-oriented concept of teacher education program
• Expansion of time in the duration of teaching practice
• Improvement in the conditions of feedback and support for student teachers
• Opportunities for school teachers to their professional development
• Up-dated concept of teacher education curriculum with advanced learning
technology integration
• Availability of resources for well-organized concept of teaching practice
• Assessment of student teachers with balanced concept of weightage to
theoretical component and practical
component
• Rich environment of learning to teach through the concept of laboratory
schools
• Participation and engagement of student teachers in decision making
process
• Developing environment of learning to teach through interactions, trust, and
collaborative experiences

Q.5 Write practical application of mirrors and lenses in our daily life. (20)

Mirrors and lenses both have the ability to reflect or refract light. This
property has put mirrors and lenses in use for centuries. As of 2010, mirrors
and lenses are so prevalent that most people use them every day, regardless
of whether or not they consciously perceive the use. There are standard and
innovative uses for mirrors.
Decorating
Because mirrors reflect light, they create an illusion of open space by
doubling whatever is in a room. Interior decorators use mirrors to make
rooms feel larger and more inviting than they truly may be. Certain styles of
mirrors may give a room a certain atmosphere based on their appearance.
Additionally, decorators may use lenses to reflect light or add color. They
may place candles on mirrors to magnify the shimmering effect or use a
series of prisms to create rainbows in a white room.

Safety
People use mirrors and lenses for safety. Auto manufacturers place mirrors
on the sides of vehicles so a driver has a better scope of traffic. Security
personnel may use mirrors to view areas of a parking garage.

Vision
Eye doctors use lenses to correct vision. The glasses or contacts they make
redirect light into the eye in a specific way so that a person's retina can
produce a clearer image of an object the person sees.
Magnification and Science
Scientists use lenses and mirrors in tools such as telescopes and microscopes.
This lets the scientist investigate objects that are extremely small or which
are too far away for people to see well without assistance.
Energy and Affirmation Techniques

Some people use mirrors in energy and affirmation techniques. In Feng Shui,
mirrors are supposed to help direct the flow of energy through a building,
thereby relieving stress and opening the individual to positive feelings and
experiences. People also look into mirrors and recite positive sayings to gain
self-confidence.

Photography
Even though many photographers rely on digital imaging as of 2010, even
digital cameras still use a traditional lens. The quality of the lens is in part
what influences the quality of the photographer's images, since the lens
directs light into the camera.

Fashion Design
Fashion designers use mirrors to look at their clothing or accessories from
multiple angles at once. This helps them judge the overall impact and
practicality of the design. Even department stores often have three-way
mirrors so that customers can study the way clothing fits before purchasing
the item.
A concave lens -- also called a diverging or negative lens -- has at least one
surface that curves inward relative to the plane of the surface, much in the
same way as a spoon. The middle of a concave lens is thinner than the edges,
and when light falls on one, the rays bend outward and diverge away from
each other. The image you see is upright but smaller than the original object.
Concave lenses are used in a variety of technical and scientific products.

Binoculars and Telescopes

Binoculars and telescopes employ convex lenses to magnify objects and
make them appear closer, but convex lenses don't transfer light accurately;
they create distortions and blurs. Binocular and telescope manufacturers
therefore install concave lenses in or before the eyepieces to help focus
images more clearly for the viewer.

Glasses
Opticians use concave lenses to correct nearsightedness -- also called myopia.
A nearsighted eyeball is too long, and the image of a far-away object falls
short of the retina. Concave lenses in glasses correct this shortfall by
spreading out the light before it reaches the eye, thereby enabling the person
using them to see distant objects more clearly.

Cameras
Camera manufacturers use combinations of concave and convex lenses to
improve the quality of photographs. The primary lens of a camera is convex,
and when used alone, it can cause distortions in the photographs called
chromatic aberrations. A convex lens, on the other hand, refracts light of
different colors at different angles, creating a fringe effect around bright
objects in the picture. Combining convex lens and concave lenses eliminates
both undesirable effects.

Flashlights
Concave lenses are used on flashlights to magnify the light produced by the
bulb. The light falls on the concave side of the lens, and the rays diverge on
the other side, thereby increasing the apparent radius of the light source and
providing a wider beam.

Lasers
Various types of medical equipment, scanners and CD players use laser
beams, and because these are highly focussed, they must often be dispersed
in order for the equipment to work properly. Small concave lenses can widen
a laser beam to precisely access a specific area. Concave lenses used with
lasers are made from fused silica to withstand the ultraviolet rays produced
by the light source.

Peepholes
Door viewers, or peepholes, are small security devices that provide a
panoramic view of objects and environments outside doors or walls. The
view is created through the use of one or more concave lenses inside the
device which minimizes the proportions of specific objects and gives a wide
overview of an entire area.